The Revenue Picture For American Journalism - 1651 Words

The Revenue Picture for American Journalism, and How It Is Changing 1. Advertising Still Dominates a. 69% of all domestic news revenue comes from advertising i. $43 billion of $63 b. Audience revenue accounts for 24% of the total revenue i. Subscriptions, cable fees, etc. c. Event hosting, marketing services and web consulting account for 7% of the total d. 1% total comes from Personal wealth, philanthropy 2. The Old and the New a. 58% combined digital and print ads i. Decline 2005: $49 billion (and 82% of total newspaper revenue) b. For-profit digital news outlets i. The Huffington Post, Vice Media, Buzzfeed, Gawker 1. 1% to 2% of all news ad revenue 3. Shift in Balance of News Revenue a. Other ways of paying for news are becoming more evident i. Events, digital marketing services, e-commerce, content licensing and even commercial printing and delivery 1. Tech sites 2. Corporate sponsorship and ticket sales 3. NY Times Hosted 16 events in 2013 4. Marketing services in local newspapers ii. Philanthropic Support 1. a larger role since the recession of 2008 and 2009 2. Investments from wealthy individuals 3. Purchasing and creating new journalism outlets b. Growth in Audience Revenue i. Finding ways to squeeze more money out of less paying viewers 4. Summary a. Internet has made it possible for revenue to expand b. Traditional sectors and the traditional forms account for most of the revenue supporting news gathering in the United States c. While newspaper industry isShow MoreRelatedSolution for the Decline of Circulation of Newspaper1065 Words   |  5 Pagessuch as the television, the radio, and the biggest competition, the World Wide Web. With the fast advancement in technology, news no longer needs to be viewed sedentarily. Electronic companies are catering to the fast-paced and busy lifestyles of Americans; therefore, creating devices that are portable and convenient for getting the news. New technology such as tablet PCs, e-book readers, and smart phones are replacing the way we have been receiving the news. However, these new devices cannot replaceRead MoreThe Rise of WikiLeaks was both necessary and inevitable  ¨Reality is an aspect of property, it1700 Words   |  7 Pages ¨Reality is an aspect of property, it must be seized, and investigative journalism is the noble art of seizing reality back from the powerful ¨(Assange 59), thus spoke Julian Assange, the praised and hated founder of Wikileaks. A Wikileaks, a non-profit international organization founded in 2006, definitely opened a new dimension of journalism by releasing information that should not be banned from the public in the name of the American idea of greater democracy. The citizens deserve to know the truthRead MoreSituation Analysis : The Nation s Newspaper1425 Words   |  6 PagesUnfortunately, today, the paper faces unprecedented competition from a variety of sources at a time when more and more Americans, especially younger people, are turning away from printed news. That shift has affected the company financially as well. USA Today and other newspapers have struggled with falling revenues and increased costs for several years. Both print and online advertising revenues have been falling steadily, declining by over 51 percent since 2005. Classified advertising has been hit particularlyRead MoreEssay on Mass Media1405 Words   |  6 Pagespopular virtual community, such as, My Space, and Face book. Both sites can be used to upload pictures, videos, post messages, and create a personal profile. The Mobile Phone: has evolved over the years. Some phones are now capable of doing all the mentioned above. 2 One of the greatest benefits of social media is the ability to access individuals by interacting through web conferencing, sharing pictures, gathering information from the internet, building virtual communities, and relationships.Read MoreHistorical Accuracy Of The Film Good Night, And Good Luck2340 Words   |  10 PagesHistorical Accuracy of the film Good Night, and Good Luck Ed Murrow is one of the most well known and respected American television journalists of all time, and a source of inspiration for many. He is portrayed in George Clooney’s, Good Night, and Good Luck, as the anchor to the news show, See it Now, specifically surrounding the episodes focused on McCarthyism. These episodes were aired in the early 1950’s in the midst of the cold war and an era of intense anti-communist sentiment in America. McCarthyismRead MoreRupert Murdoch ¬Ã‚ ¥S Media Monopoly5481 Words   |  22 PagesÂ…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â… p. 3 1. The development of television Â…Â…Â….. p. 4 2. Globalisation of the TV market and its effects Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…. p. 5 3. How legislation can influence the quality of journalism Â…Â…Â…Â…Â….. p. 6 4. How television can be abusedÂ…Â….Â…Â…p. 8 5. Rupert Murdoch ´s media monopoly and its effects on American television and society Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â… p.10 Conclusion Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â… p. 15 Bibliography Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…Â…. p. 17 Introduction The following term paper deals with the developmentRead MoreEssay about We Should NOT Censor Internet Pornography1331 Words   |  6 Pageswho knowingly makes indecent material available to children under eighteen5. The Act used sweeping generalizations, which banned all forms of nudity in written and graphic form on the Internet. The clauses of the Act were so broad that posting pictures of famous works of art on the Internet, such as Michaelangelos David, would be grounds for a heavy fine. Sexually related articles and photos, which are constitutionally protected in tangible form, would have been deemed unconstitutional in electronicRead MoreEssay on Mass Media Coverage of Presidential Election1460 Words   |  6 Pagescoverage of the U.S. presidential election involves two key elements- news reporting and paid advertising. Combined they make the media an important and influential factor in the election process. The media depends upon the campaigns for both news and revenues. The candidates then rely upon the media to get in touch with the largest number of voters possible. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The Media has a â€Å" very powerful and justifiable role† (Fullerton-1) to play in presidentialRead More Public Opinion and Television Essay5264 Words   |  22 Pagesmanipulate the public opinion. Outlining the success story of this important means of mass media at the beginning of the first chapter, I will then explain the effects of globalisation on the TV market. Considering the example of commercialised American television, I will demonstrate in which ways the extreme competition between TV companies and their struggle for the top ratings has influenced the quality of TV programs. In the second chapter I will deal with media control and show how televisionRead MoreStereotypes Of Stereotypes Are Everywhere2445 Words   |  10 Pagesmultiple years as a member of the American military. As a child of the Cold War, Mr. V was always taught that the Russians were the enemy. This teaching went even further during Mr. V s service in the military, where he was trained to not only hate Russians, but to kill them as well. Americans during the Cold war were constantly plagued and bombarded by stereotypes brought about by propaganda. Russians were the primary enemy and were the main targets of this yellow1 journalism. The most prevalent stereotypes

The Athletic Director Of A Budding High School - 1755 Words

You are the athletic director of a budding high school. Currently there is a six and a half foot junior with incredible athletic ability, earning national recognition. Weekly you are receiving phone calls from newspaper and television reporters, as well as fielding questions from college coaches and community sponsors. You see the potential in this student, and it leads to recognition, acclaim, and possibly future financial gain. There is, however, one small problem; the student-athlete is currently failing three of six classes for the semester. As it stands, if the school year finishes without change in the grades, your future of fame and fortune will be ineligible for the senior season. This is situation all too familiar in high†¦show more content†¦I am interested in this topic because of my plan of influence on high school student-athletes as an athletic director. A problem of increasing concern with high school student-athletes is preferential treatment and altering the grades of exceptional athletes. Many problems and scandals are difficult to identify because of the secrecy surrounding the situation. Grade altering is not one of those problems. Grade altering stories are readily available in both local and national newspapers. There is a growing problem where much of a school’s popularity and funding stems from athletic success. Even more, if a school has a student or group of students with great athletic ability, the school will likely bend some of its rules to maintain the athletes’ image and eligibility. In this study I intend to identify common administrative flaws within high schools, and identify a strategy of grade altering corruption prevention. All high school teachers and athletic directors should be familiar with the idea of grade altering, and have a system in place to handle and correct any possible academic corruption. A precautionary and preventative system can eliminate the possibility of grade altering, student-athlete entitlement, and negative media coverage of the school and athletic department. Are there measures that can prevent the immoral and unethical practice of grade altering? High schools do not receive much coverage from the

Customer Participation and Value Creation †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Customer Participation and Value Creation. Answer: Introduction This research proposal demonstrates the development of customer value in retail business in the context of implications of strategic marketing. Further, the primary purpose of this proposal is to evaluate the role of strategic marketing practices in the development of customer value in the retail business. This report presents the research methodology to significantly know tools and techniques that will be used to meet research objectives in an appropriate manner. The research methodology plays an imperative role to address research techniques to appropriately resolve research dilemma. Additionally, it is a systematic way to analyze the research methods that will be significant for the researcher due to successfully collecting information about the research dilemma. An efficient and suitable research methodology supports to the researcher to complete the research work along with obtaining the reliable outcome. In addition to this, it can also be said that this procedure can be effective to create knowledge regarding the research issue along with many terms of research methods. This section includes many research ways, approaches, and strategies that will be used by the researcher to collect the data for accomplishing the research aim. It will also significant to improve the research quality in an appropriate manner (Brinkmann, 2014). The research approach is also significant for researcher to develop theory regarding research dilemma. There are two kinds of research approaches like inductive and deductive approaches, which will be executed by the researcher to offer a suitable explanation about the research methods. For this, the deductive approach is relied on the basic ideas and opinion to meet the specified situation. It will be appropriate with positivism beliefs. For this approach, researchers will develop hypotheses by using many concepts and theories afterward hypothesis accept or reject as per the requirement of the data analysis. In contrast, the inductive approach is more appropriate as compared to deductive approach because there is no need of the development of hypothesis to resolve the research issues (Chandler, et al., 2015). Additionally, inductive approach is suitable with interpretivism research philosophy. It will be effective for researcher due to developing the concept and theories on behalf of perception, ideas, opinion, and thought of respondents. For performing this research study, a researcher will imply the inductive approach than the deductive approach because this research is subjective in nature wherein this approach is more appropriate to successfully accomplish the task of research objectives. At the same time, it can also be said that the inductive approach will allow the researcher for determining the role of strategic marketing practices in the development of customer value in the retail business. From this, a researcher will also be able to develop theories that will not be possible through deductive approach (Flick, 2015). Sampling Method In this research study, a researcher will use the probability sampling method with the random method as compared to the non-probability sampling. Since, the probability sampling research method will allow the researcher to choose the respondents by random basis. It will be significant to decline probability of biases to select respondents for the research study (Jaakkola, et al., 2014). Beside this, researchers will not use the non-probability sampling method because this method enabled the researcher to select the participants on behalf of knowledge, skills, and experience to meet the question of research. It will also create biases in the research that will not appropriate for this research. To conduct the questionnaire survey, 50 participants with marketing background academically and at a practice level (hereinafter referred as Industry Experts) and 5 managers at Amazon Inc. These participants are selected from a diverse area that will allow the researcher to gather appropriate and efficient information regarding the research problem. For this, the researcher will able to improve the accuracy and consistency of the research study as collected samples will be supportive to accomplish the research aim and objectives of the research. A researcher will take the permission for the upper authority to conduct the survey on executives because of identifying the private information of the company, time period, and contribution of an employee in the research (Korschun, et al., 2014). In addition to this, it can also be said that a researcher will make questionnaire by using the MS-office tool about the customer value to gather the opinion of respondents regarding the practices of strategic marketing. After the creating the questionnaire, a researcher will provide the questionnaire by using e-mail to the managers of the company and also offered guidelines to respond the questionnaire by e-mail in the specified time (Mackey, et al., 2015). Types of research (Qualitative and quantitative) In this research, the mixed research method will be used by the researcher. It includes two kinds of the research methods named qualitative and quantitative. It will be supportive to obtain the benefit of both methods qualitative as we as quantitative. Along with this, it can also be said that mixed research method will be supportive to eliminate the cons of both qualitative and quantitative methods. A researcher will be able to make the theoretical understanding regarding research dilemma by using the qualitative method in a research study. In addition to this, a researcher will capable to perform a statistical activity to resolve the research problem by implementing quantitative research method (Mustak, et al., 2013). By using the mixed research, the researcher will enable to evaluate the perception and opinion of the participant to develop the accurate result regarding the development of customers values through strategic marketing practices. Beside this, it can be said that the mixed research method can decline the quality of research study (Panneerselvam, 2014). A researcher will imply the both data collection methods named primary and secondary data collection method to conduct this research in an appropriate manner. The implementation of both primary and secondary data in the research study will be significant to fill the gap between standard and actual information in a systematic manner. In the secondary data collection method, a researcher will use many sources such as authentic websites, journals, governmental reports, an annual report of the company to meet the objectives of research in a systematic manner. Besides this, the primary data collection method is also used by the researcher by using survey with questionnaire method. It will enable the researcher to collect the information from specified respondents and evaluate the information to develop the accurate result about the research problem (Smith, 2015). Proposed method of analysis Data analysis plays a significant role to interpret and evaluate the information to address the accurate data for the research study. It will be appropriate to meet the objectives of the research study in an appropriate manner. There are some significant methods that can be used by the researcher to meet the research aim named conversational analysis, content analysis, disclosure analysis, thematic analysis, and statistical analysis. A researcher will use statistical analysis to complete the research effectively. A research will imply MS-Excel software in the statistical analysis to obtain reliable outcomes. A researcher will be used pie-chart, different graphs, and column chart to perform the data analysis as well as obtain the accurate or reliable result in a specified time (Taylor, et al., 2015). The outcome of this research study will offer a critical structure to examine the role of strategic marketing practices to develop the customer value in an appropriate manner. Hence, this research proposal will support to develop new knowledge and evaluates the approaches that are practiced by the company in order to control the problems of customer value development. It will support to make a clear a picture about the practices of marketing strategies which will help to develop customer value in an appropriate manner. The customers value is affected by many factors such as quality, price, brand image, environment, and current trend (Vaioleti, 2016). Furthermore, it can also be said that these factors directly impact on result of this research study. Furthermore, it can also be said that research objectives and questions will identify in the proposal and the completion of research is relied on the collected data, discoveries, and evaluation. These research outcomes will evaluate as a n educational work in order to identify the research issues. Further, this research will be supportive for a company to focus on the factors that will improve customer value in a systematic process (Yi, et al., 2013). Conclusion From the above analysis, it can be summarized that the practices of marketing strategies can be significant for developing customer value in an appropriate manner. At the same time, it can also be concluded that research methodology can be effective to identify appropriate tools and techniques to perform the research systematically. In addition, the inductive approach will be used by the researcher to meet the objectives of the research. As well as, probability sampling method will be used by researchers to perform the research successfully. References Brinkmann, S. (2014) Interview, InEncyclopedia of Critical Psychology, USA: Springer New York. Chandler, J. D., and Lusch, R. F. (2015) Service systems: a broadened framework and research agenda on value propositions, engagement, and service experience,Journal of Service Research,18(1), pp. 6-22. Flick, U. (2015)Introducing research methodology: A beginner's guide to doing a research project, USA: Sage. Jaakkola, E., and Alexander, M. (2014) The role of customer engagement behavior in value co-creation: a service system perspective,Journal of Service Research,17(3), pp. 247-261. Korschun, D., Bhattacharya, C. B., and Swain, S. D. (2014) Corporate social responsibility, customer orientation, and the job performance of frontline employees,Journal of Marketing,78(3), pp. 20-37. Mackey, A., and Gass, S. M. (2015)Second language research: Methodology and design, UK: Routledge. Mustak, M., Jaakkola, E., and Halinen, A. (2013) Customer participation and value creation: a systematic review and research implications,Managing Service Quality: An International Journal,23(4), pp. 341-359. Panneerselvam, R. (2014)Research methodology, USA: PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. Smith, J. A. (Ed.). (2015) Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods, USA: Sage. Taylor, S. J., Bogdan, R., and DeVault, M. (2015)Introduction to qualitative research methods: A guidebook and resource, USA: John Wiley and Sons. Vaioleti, T. M. (2016) Talanoa research methodology: A developing position on Pacific research,Waikato Journal of Education,12(1), P.58. Yi, Y., and Gong, T. (2013) Customer value co-creation behavior: Scale development and validation,Journal of Business Research,66(9), pp. 1279-1284.

Mutual Gain Approach to Bargaining

Question: Discuss about theMutual Gain Approach to Bargaining. Answer: Introduction: Companies have their own terms and conditions, at times, which may be dissatisfying to the employees thereby consequently affecting their performances. An effective tool, which allows the employer and the employees to settle dispute, is the method of collective bargaining using the technique of mutual gain approach. So collective bargaining is collective approach of negotiation in between the employees represented by the trade union to which the employees belong and the employer of the respective firm, so briefly collective bargaining is the outcome of negotiation(Carrell Heavrin, 2013). Mutual approach being collaborative is 'Win-Win' approach, where the both the parties should have a shared understanding of the complexity and the scope of the project. It involves a five step principles: Identify interest, consider all options, Develop criteria, understand your alternatives, and Build relationships . Saturn partnership is a separate wholly owned subsidiary corporation of general motors. It offers an excellent example of mutual gains approach to workplace conflict. It incorporates the tactics of mixed bargaining along with integrative problem solving, one such conflict occurred in the year 1991. In Saturn organization the union leaders give substantive expertise and an independent view to a problem, they increase the value by incrementing the quality of decision making in several joint committees to strategic action plan, where union leaders speak up directly to confront their problems. In Saturn organizations there are many instances of conflicts and their resolutions through partnership, here the problems are clear cut, bilateral and labor versus management conflicts. Two undoubted form oforganizations governance system is its traditional form of labor management conflict resolution and problem solving against the traditional decision making. Therefore,this is what makes the Sat urn unique for its incredible and nevertheless strategic method of conflict resolution (Cornette, 2016). Now, the BC ministry of social services and housing which is renowned for confronted approach to resolve labor related issues. In the year 1994, an effective measure to utilize tax payer monies in a better manner, the BC government agreed for a partnership which resulted in mutual gain approach in workplace problem resolution. They employed a five-step problem solving strategy for both the parties to examine the current relation issues and create schemes to foster changes. Both participants had a lot more in common than they originally imagined. It actually was a strategy to resolve issues from win loose to cooperative decision making for the problem solution. Considering the Canadian case of the Northern Telecom and communication, the mutual bargaining process was deployed by the company in order to prevent the closure of the plant and through this process, the company was able to pass the resolution and avoid the plant closure. The mutual bargaining approach employed the use of the negotiation process. The BC ministry of social services and the Saturn organization also followed the mutual approach to bargaining to resolve the matter as against the traditional decision making. Reference: Carrell, M. R., Heavrin, C. (2013). Labor relations and collective bargaining. Cornette, G. (2016). Saturn: Re-engineering the.Teamwork in the Automobile Industry: Radical Change or Passing Fashion?, 85. Rubin, J. Z., Brown, B. R. (2013).The social psychology of bargaining and negotiation. Elsevier.

How Society Has Been Impacted by the Increased Availability of Electronic Information free essay sample

How society has been impacted by the increased availability of electronic information Society has been impacted by the increased availability of electronic information in a number of different ways. I am going to talk about how the availability of information affects me and my family, also how it affects society in general and the average individual and to conclude I will talk about individuals and the effect on those who do not have access to IT. Electronic information is available to us via Smartphones, PC’s, PDA’s, Tablets and Laptop’s. There are also advantages and disadvantages of the increased availability of electronic information. The increased availability of electronic information affects me and my family greatly in our day to day activities, this has had a major impact on my life over the past few years in particular, for example I access a variety of different screen-based documents such as, e-mails, text messages, internet web pages, television etc. We will write a custom essay sample on How Society Has Been Impacted by the Increased Availability of Electronic Information or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The decrease of paper-based documents has been extremely rapid with me and parents, with my parents accessing work material over the internet rather than being handed a paper based report. This has also impacted me as I use text messages to speak with my parents, family and friends, making it efficient for me to talk to them on the go and quickly. This saves me the journey of having to walk to friends or families houses, although these mobile phones do run on a portable battery, these are not always the most efficient making people unavailable, which is a disadvantage to this. Also another mutual thing that has affected me and parents greatly is the way that we search information; years ago I would simply walk to the library and borrow a textbook, or enquire with my parents or teachers about certain information. Now I have unlimited access to a computer with various different search engines such as; Google, Yahoo, Ask Jeeves etc. I can search for whatever information that I seek, and I have search criteria if I choose to use it, such as filtering for the most up to date information and certain words that should not be found. Making this extremely efficient and saves me a whole of time compared to the method of walking to the library, my parents also use this process daily. I also use the internet frequently, as it has a variety of different uses such as checking movie times, allowing you to plan ahead, saving you time, and being able to make family decisions. Allowing you to shop online, making the shopping process a whole lot smoother and requiring less effort, and allowing you to do much more in a shorter space of time. The Internet also has a variety of different uses, such as checking movie times, allowing you to plan ahead, saving you time. Allowing you to shop online, making the shopping process a whole lot smoother and requiring less effort, and allowing you to go see much more that you would in a shorter space of time. Typing work out, which is extremely useful as you now have to do work multiple times, this allows you to always have a neat edge to your work and saves you time as you would have to write it out numerous times. There are also disadvantages though with electronic software, such as the price of the work, it is extremely expensive, and you often have to pay on-going subscriptions for internet. Computers have a reputation of failing, and having numerous problems, meaning work can be lost and can cause frustration, and the numerous viruses that can be found on the internet, are always a burden, which are well hidden in programs making them hard to spot, nevertheless the increases in the availability of information have benefited me and my family and we are immensely dependent upon this. The availability of information affects society in general massively also, many people around the world, use the internet to keep in contact with others from around the world via e-mail etc. this is much cheaper and time-efficient than sending a letter. People also want to keep up to date which the TV serves an excellent cause, by having numerous programs, the TV also serves different purposes, by providing entertainment, with a variety of different television programs, the age groups of these ranges from 0-6 months to 90+, and this is expensive though so it is not accessible to everyone. Society also uses the internet and TV to keep up with what is happening around the world and to have instant access to information, which is not provided in newspapers as information is a day behind, this is also allows people to plan ahead, e. g. London bombings takes place and citizens get information from internet and avoid public transport. Society also use online banking which saves people from having to go to the bank to pay bills, get bank statements (which only come once a month via paper-based documents) companies now also encourage people to pay bills via electronic ethods, by making it cheaper in comparison to cheques and money in hand methods. Society also use the internet for entertainment methods such as ‘iPlayer and 40D’ this allows people to catch up with favourite programs after they have been shown on television, this impacts society greatly as it is free and allows people to make plans during favourite television programs and documentaries. Also many companies do not allow you to apply for jobs via handing in a paper-based Curriculum –Vitae document and completing a job application, companies tell you to apply online, this making it essential to have a computer or access to a computer. Also travel information is now available on the Internet, ranging from trains, buses to planes. Allowing society to go onto the respective websites and structure your journey letting you find the quickest way to get to the desired destinations of choice and for planes letting you check in a day early, saving you time when you get to the airport. Another major impact that this has on society is the police database, which keeps all of our records, this also linking in with mobile phones, making it quicker for people to call the police in emergency, through a 911, 999 or other emergency contact number. With most of society also relying on e-mails for many job instructions to be given for work also. Many public services organisations also use the website to display information such as the Local and National Government on www. directgov. org. NHS also has features to allow you to self-diagnose symptoms, making this quicker for everyone, and stops time wasting, and all banks now allowing you to bank online, saving you masses of time. Of course there are disadvantages, such as personal details being hacked from pcs whilst banking, and the price of computers and how much broadband costs monthly. There is an immense impact of electronic communications on organisations, many different companies use electronic communications in their business relying less on paper based documents as we advance into the future. Comet is a prime example of a business relying less on the paper-based documents, they refuse to accept paper-based documents when someone is applying for a job, they insist on people using the online job resource. They also send all instructions for their companies via e-mail whilst before this was either typed out and printed out and distributed to each member, making the new method, cheaper and quicker. Schools also are impacted greatly by the impact of increased electronic communications, my school uses a VLE (virtual learning environment) to have lessons structured and so that they are always available, from where ever you are as long as you have an Internet connection. These are used at most schools now. Public services organisations are also impacted by the increased availability of electronic information; the government introduced the ‘Website Public Services Information (2005)’ stating that all public services organisation had to put their databases on the World Wide Web. The NHS has a self – diagnosis symptom program on their website. This makes it easier for people to see what is wrong with them, resulting in less emergency calls. Also UCAS who have the whole applying process for universities online, cutting out paper-based documents. Making it quicker for universities in accepting and declining and for students also in finding out the courses and universities they are interested in. There are people that do not want to have to electronic information such as old age pensioners, certain religious groups, and people with old fashioned values, those who do not know how to use computers, those who have security fears, those who feel it is impersonal and those who feel that electronic information is an invasion of privacy. The availability of information also affects people that do not want to have electronic information greatly also, as they lose out on many things such as job applications as many companies now do all the applications online and not on the web. They are also out of knowing of what is happening, constantly waiting for the newspaper or magazines. It is much harder to function in this society, as we are dependent on electronic information. They will have to have a much longer process in doing many things, such as finding jobs; they are also limited to certain jobs where electronic information is not required, which could see as a major problem in this economic downfall. They are also forced to rely on their judgement a lot, with not being able to check travel information etc. this adding extra time onto their journey. They will also be caught up by natural events such as snow; they will not be able to communicate with others because they cannot get post sent whilst e-mail would be sent. Those who do not have access, because they simply cannot, are impacted by the increased availability of electronic information are also affected, these are people that are old age pensioners, low income families, remote 3rd countries, prisoners and those that are in areas of the United Kingdom with no connectivity. Some of these people have had their problems tackled by places such as libraries, schools and Internet cafes. Giving them Internet access for most of the year, but they are also have holiday periods when they are not open, giving them no Internet access. They are already adding extra time to their journey by having to go to one of these destinations that have Internet. Those in areas that have no broadband activity, are worse off as the whole area will not have any sort of broadband and will have to travel further to receive internet. The ‘digital divide’, describes the fact that the world can be divided into people who do and people who don’t have access to and the capability to use – modern information technology, such as the telephone, television or the Internet. There are plans to end Africa’s digital divide, by Intel’s chairman Craig Barrett. This will take long for this to happen, so there is still a major impact on those in remote Africa. I have concluded that the increased availability of electronic information has impacted everyone greatly whether you use it or not, as it may limit you if you do not use it, or may allow you to do process’ faster. You are impacted by the increased availability of electronic information if you utilise the resources that are available to you, whilst if you do not, there is extra hassle to do certain activities. Making it essential to have either a computer with a broadband connection.

Schools as Loosely Coupled Systems

Schools as Loosely Coupled Systems Free Online Research Papers Course Name: DYNAMICS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Exam 2: Respond in detail to the following questions (no less than 3-4 pages per questions: 1. Define the term loosely coupled systems and give a specific example of how this concept is used to understand school organizations 2. In a school where you are the principal, illustrate how this school has a positive school climate. In your response, identify the four primary dimensions of school climate according to Taguiri’s model. For each of these dimensions describe how it is implemented in this school to produce a positive climate, and give at least one specific example for each dimension. Finally, indicate how you, as principal, continually assess the climate relative to these dimensions. 3. As the principal of a school (you choose the grade levels), propose a plan for school renewal using organizational development as a change strategy. For the past several years, the students achievement test scores have declined and the school overall has had very low test scores compared to similar schools in the district. In your response, identify at least three of the 10 concepts that characterize ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and for each illustrate how these will be used to improve the school. 1. The management of schools are perceived to be bureaucratic. Typically, the school structure is a hierarchically connected pyramid of units under strong central control. However, scholars of organizations have found that schools are characterized by structural looseness, that schools in a district have an element of sovereignty and freedom, and that the management of teachers under a principal is much more broad and wide-ranging as thought before. Charles Bidwell has pointed out that, given the nature of the school’s task, clients and technology, that this structural looseness is a functionally necessary arrangement. Karl Weick and James G. March indicated that schools do not consist of hierarchical units as in true bureaucracies, but are loosely coupled as systems. â€Å" The beauty of this depiction is that it captures a different set of realities within educational organizations than are caught when these same organizations are viewed throughout the tenets of bureaucratic theory.† ( Owens / Valesky: 2007:165) Rational concepts, such as planning, goal-setting, job descriptions , evaluation and reward systems fail to adequately describe how schools function. This fact brings a receptiveness to understanding schools by non- traditional ways, such as the notion of loose coupling. Loosely coupled systems are subsystems in the institution that are connected to each other, but still sustain their own identities and function independently. Their interaction is weak, and relatively insignificant . For example, the guidance office is supposed to report to the principal’s office, but interaction between them is seldom, and responses to these interactions are slow. The coupling may hence be described as loose . Another example of loose coupling could be the school library and the principal’s office. The librarian is supposed to report to the principal’s office, similar to the cafeteria manager, or school nurse, or other non-instructional facets of the school. The librarian is responsible for resources, and smooth functioning of all aspects of the library. The librarian seldomly reports to the principal unless there is some unusual situation that calls for the principal’s direct involvement. By the mid-80s, consensus were reached that the concept of loosely coupled systems might describe previously misunderstood concepts of organizations. It is however, still not adequate description of how schools function. Many aspects of bureaucracy can still be found in schools . It is crucial to understand that institutions are loosely coupled in some ways, and bureaucratic in others. John Meyer and Brian Rowans found bureaucratic mechanisms such as teacher evaluations, peer observations, observation feedbacks, cooperative grade level planning and teaching, absent in American schools in 34 school districts. Evidence of other forms of supervision, reminiscent of the No Child Left Behind Act, such as student evaluations, detailed specification of curriculum, checking student mastery of precious grade’s work, were found. Instruction is the central being of schools . Contrary to bureaucratic notions, it is loosely coupled because administrators do not exercise direct control over it. Although school managers are held responsible for the curriculum and instructional programs, they have limited power to control content of, and method of instruction. Since the advent of labor unions , their power to do so, have significantly diminished. Meyer and Rowan reported that only 12% of school managers indicated they could make decisions concerning what teachers teach, and only 4% felt they had considerable power to decide instructional methods. They do have indirect influence on instructional behavior by bureaucratic means , such as, Control of time: time schedules, frequency of interruption of lessons, pulling out of students for special activities, paperwork to be completed, How many and what kind of classes to assign Grouping: Heterogeneously or homogeneously, self-contained or team-teaching, Control of resources: Assignment of teaching space, availability of equipment and supplies Teachers have increasingly sought protection from these mechanisms, and to have some participation in it through collective bargaining. School managers have considerably more control over non-instructional activities, such as bus schedules, issuing of paychecks, and attendance . This is described as tightly coupled because they are scrupulously monitored. 82% of principals reported involvement in scheduling, 75% in student assignment, and 88% in hiring of staff. Contemporary scholars conclude frequently that loose coupling is faulty, and that schools should stick to the classical norm. Hence many political initiatives demanded toughening up of standards. This was seen in the form of new curriculum additions, more testing, and more specifications of teaching methods. The focus is on understanding educational institutions in their current state of being in order to yield better comprehension of institutions and organizational management. Studies show that a more subtle , powerful method exists to exert power over instructional activities, that is, the development of organizational culture. 2. School climate is the heart and soul of a school. It is that essence of a school that all role players to love it and to look forward to being there each school day. It helps people to feel feel personal worth, dignity and importance, while simultaneously helping to create a sense of belonging to something beyond ourselves. The climate of a school can promote resilience or become a risk factor in the lives of people who work and learn in a place called school. A school’s climate can define the quality of a school that creates healthy learning places; nurtures children’s and parents’ dreams and aspirations; stimulates teachers’ creativity and enthusiasm, and elevates all of its members. ( Freiberg and TA Stein: ) Schools have their own distinctive characteristics. Organizational climate has triumphed over other terminology such as ethos, atmosphere, personality and tone in attempts to describe the idiosyncratic nature of schools. Climate generally describes the traits of the environment in its totality. According to Renato Taguiri, the environment consists of 4 dynamically interrelated dimensions. He presented culture as one of four components of organizational climate, along with ecology, milieu, and organization or structure. If I was principal of an Elementary School, (grades K-6), I would try to utilize these dimensions to enhance school climate in the following ways: Ecology refers to the physical and material elements of a work place: building, technology, facilities, furniture, and so forth. There is a need to provide â€Å"something more than mere housing†, the need for esprit de corps , which means â€Å"spirit of the body†, a common spirit of enthusiasm, a liveliness of mind and expression among the members of the group. I would attempt to use the ecology and physical elements of the school to create an inviting and friendly atmosphere , thereby fostering a positive climate. A building can be old, and traditional, yet be clean, tidy and well-organized. Hallways and classrooms should be attractively decorated with student work, information about upcoming events, study themes and field trips. In terms of the safety aspect, an evacuation / emergency plan should be posted in strategic places, and all teachers and students should practice the fire/tornado drills, as well as know what to do in case of a lockdown. All available space should be optimally utilized. Classrooms should be well-equipped with facilities and technology to maximize the teaching and learning environment, is vital. Modern-day classrooms are equipped with smartboards, computers, and have internet access. Resources, such as textbooks should be available to teachers and students, as well as a well-resourced library. Classroom size should be manageable, and teachers should be able to print, and photocopy as needed, within reasonable limits. The bell-schedule is another important aspect of the day, without which a typical school day could be chaotic. Even the teacher’s lounge or cafeteria should reflect emphasis on a well-organized environment, because this is where relationships between teachers, learners and other staff are formed. The second dimension of school climate, is milieu: It is the social aspect, and refers to the people in an organization: number of employees, socio-economic status, race, education, salary levels, and so forth. An administrator’s task is people-related, so good interpersonal relationships must exist between people in the school, and the right type of climate should exist so people would feel mutually committed to organizational goals. Firstly, I would make sure all staff can utilize their skills. All staff should feel they have support from management, and that there are channels and structures, through which they can vent. Teachers should feel they have some input in decision-making with regards to curriculum, instructional methods, fundraising, budget expenditure and so forth. As school manager I would make sure that there are no ambiguity with regards to expectations about hours, responsibilities, and procedures. All staff should feel they are treated fairly, and with dignity and respect, and that a complete absence of favoritism exists. I would like the perception of teaching as a profession to be elevated as it is perceived as lower status and income as others, and thereby help teachers to feel more pride in their chosen profession. Salary is a public indication of a profession’s status, and teachers’ remuneration is low relative to other professional groups. This is something I could address with bargaining councils. Yearly retreats and end of term functions with a focus on problem-solving, rather than problem prevention, reaffirm commitment to common goals. These retreats should be open to all employees, and reaffirm commitment to learners and each other. The third dimension of school climate is social system, which refers to the organization, administration, decision making procedures, and communication patterns. Owens and Valesky find the word organization as more aptly descriptive of dimension than social system. Level of organization stems from factors that are directly controlled by leaders, therefore there is a close link between their management choices, and the resulting organizational climate. Some consider social system as a disorganized natural order of things, whereas organization accentuates the manager’s responsibility clearer. Modern day research tends to focus more on the role of culture in shaping organizational climate. In a school where I’m principal, I would encourage staff members to feel the freedom to present ideas for development as long as it fits in with the school’s curriculum and policies. I would try to find strategies to enhance teacher involvement in decision making and to improve the quality of work life. I would strive to give teachers input into decision-making re. curriculum, text book selection, course content, special programs, but also into managerial decisions such as hiring and budget matters. I would strive to provide clarity about expectations and work direction, but not so much as to provide a sense that work is routine. If teachers are assigned tasks, I would grant them some freedom to implement them without interruption by their immediate superiors. Teachers expect substantial autonomy in their work, and to be allowed a degree of initiative and creativity. I would afford them the opportunity to utilize their own special abilities and talents, and be allowed to see the results of their work. I would like teachers to look upon me as their principal as a colleague in the sense that I provide information and support , as well as evaluate their work performance. I would attempt, to the best of my ability, to take into account teachers’ opinions, and suggestions. I would make teachers aware of advancement opportunities in recognition of greater levels of expertise. It is important to include opportunities for advancement as a work environment dimension for professionals. Rationality of fairness of advancement appears to be an additional work environment concern. The more teachers feel that they have opportunities for advancement, the more committed they are to the organization. The forth dimension of school climate is culture: There are several definitions of the word â€Å"culture: â€Å"Culture is to the organization what personality is to the individual – a hidden, yet unifying theme that provides meaning, direction, and mobilization† . Kilman, Saxton, and Serpa (1985b). According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture refers to the tried and tested corpus of solutions which are taught to new employees as the correct way of dealing with issues – the way we do things around here. Culture is a system of shared values and beliefs that interrelates to an organization’s employees, structures and control systems to generate behavioral standards. Culture and Climate both consider the interrelation of recent experiences and intangible powers in the organizations’ environment. Culture refers to the behavioral standards, hypotheses and beliefs , and climate refers to the observations of role players within the organization to exhibit those beliefs. Owens and Valesky define organizational culture in several ways: Organizational culture is the rules of the game: the unseen meanings in the rulebook that insures unity. Culture consists of the conclusions a group of people draws from its experience. An organization’s culture consists largely of what people believe about what works and what does not. As school principal, I would attempt to improve the school culture, firstly by developing a mission statement that reflects the purpose and the shared vision of the schoo. I would have students recite the mission statement, along withsinging of the National Anthem, every morning before classes commence . To encourage a school culture and climate that promotes individuals who are bonded together by natural will, and who are together bound to a set of shared ideas, and ideals then principals must strengthen their efforts towards improving connections, coherence, capacity, commitment, and collaboration among their members (Sergiovanni, 2001). I would encourage a supportive climate in these ways : Continual sharing of ideas with regards to instruction, curriculum, testing, school organization and the value of specific knowledge. Collaboration by allowing teachers to become involved in team teaching and other collaborative efforts in program development, writing and research Equality_ by dispensing with formalities and allow anyone to vote in a department meeting. Practical application by teachers constantly reflecting their practices Organizational culture is usually studied through observing organizational behavior and environmental elements. The study of symbolism is central in an examination of organizational culture: the rituals, myths, traditions, rites and language through which values are perpetuated. A school can be perceived as holding particular values, principles that have a strong impact on its role players. It is vital to understand which techniques organizations employ to enforce desired behaviors, if one wishes to comprehend organizational culture. Artifacts and symbols are representative of the culture and history fot he school so I would have trophies, cultural artifacts, medals and photographs displayed in school hallways and foyers. The country flag should be displayed in each classroom, and students should sing the anthem each morning. The school would participate in celebrations relative to their history such as National Day, (UAE), Independence Day (USA), and Freedom Day,( SA). Other relevant celebrations are of a cultural nature, such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Awareness of global matters could be celebrated by participating in Arbor Day ( planting a tree day) and Earth Day. To promote reading, I would encourage events such as Dress up as a Favorite Story character and have teachers devote a section of the school day to reading. The teaching of History should incorporate telling of myths, fables, and stories related to the country’s history. 3b. How would I as principal evaluate the climate relative to these dimensions: Improving school climate requires a consistent effort and reflection upon the issues that have led to current conditions. School climate should be measured from multiple perspectives, and throughout the school year, so that each person responsible for the education of youth can see how healthy the learning environment is and what needs to be changed or sustained. There are universal questions faculty and students could reflect on when evaluating school climate: How the school arrived a t a particular junction, what changes have occurred since and what adjustments are needed, and the role of each person in sustaining a healthy learning environment? Direct ways to measure school climate, are -survey instruments, stories, discussions, cases, student drawings, teacher and student journals, interviews, video and ambient noise check lists to describe what is occurring in school and classrooms collect climate data. -the use of climate surveys, classroom observations, interviews, video taping, journal narratives, student drawings, and focus groups Indirect measures are Analyzing existing data sources kept by the teacher, school or local education authority, including attendance records of students and teachers; visits to the nurse’s office (which are measures of student stress levels); discipline referrals to the office; suspensions and expulsions; teacher and administrator turnover rates; student achievement; student mobility rates and the like. I would endeavor to draw up a plan for school effectiveness, i.e. decide which outcomes I want to pursue, and then define their climate and effectiveness factors as instruments to achieve their intended outcomes. The Dutch checklist for the assessment of the quality of classroom and school climate factors is another useful tool to get a clearer picture of strong and weak points of the school and classroom climate. 3. Organizational Development is the process by which a learning organization adjusts to evolving changes in the environment as well as an attempt to increase the self-renewal capacity of school districts and schools. For the purpose of this assignment I will focus on three of the concepts OD involves:, and to show how I would implement them into a plan for Organizational Development: 1. The goals : To improve the functioning of the organization in order to facilitate decision-making , and to develop a work-oriented culture that will increase the involvement of the people in the organization in these areas. Firstly, I would select a group to work with me to set the goals to be obtained. It is imperative that all role players should agree on the organization’s goals and how to accomplish them. There are distinct benefits to having a clear set of organizational goals. Goals -serve as guidelines for action, directing and channelling of employee efforts. provide constraints in the organization. Choosing specific goals reduces discretion in pursuing other goals. legitimize an organization’s activities and existence. define standards of performance and if they are clearly stated, they set standards for evaluation. motivate: By presenting a challenge and how to achieve it, organizational goals act as behavioural incentives. If goals are set as a group, people will support them and be responsible for what they help create. Greater commitment and motivation can be expected. There will be a clear understanding of the goals and rationale for selecting the group. If all members contributed to the goal setting, it will represent a group consensus instead of one person’s ideas. This is how I would go about setting the goals with my group: 1. Brainstorm a list of potential goals as a group. 2. Choose from the brainstorm list which to be worked on 3. Prioritize. 4. Determine objectives for each goal and plans of action for each objective 5. Move into action, follow through. The next step is to develop an Action Plan. The following needs to be determined: 1. What is to be done and how is it to be accomplished? 2. Availability of resources 3. People responsible for completing each task 4. What is the deadline and how will results be measured? Once the Action Plan is in place, I will now designate people to specific tasks, set up a time frame, and plan regular feedback opportunities. It is also important to consider what alternative actions could be taken should parts of the Action Plan not function properly. 5. System renewal: To enable the organization to initiate and adjust to change, develop problem-solving abilities, have an increased sense of purpose and direction and to impact the environment. The postmodern culture is characterized by many contradictions that have direct implications for educators.: -Many parents have given up responsibility for the very things they want schools to emphasize, for example, they demand more literature graduates, but allow their children to watch television for hours. -Businesses often fail to use the skills that it demands schools produce. The economic world is dominated by transnational corporations, national education systems encourage national curriculum and standards. Society demands more flexible work skills, and multicultural diversity, and expect schools to consider multiple intelligences, different learning styles, heterogenous grouping, and the integration of special needs students into mainstream. I propose six principles of school renewal that take these contradictions into account: 1. Moving missions: Common missions that require complete consensus, and have to appeal to so many different interests, can become weak. Mission statements can become too fixed to enable satisfactory responsiveness to changes in policy mandates, personnel, or student populations. Teachers and schools should therefore review and renew their purposes over time. 2. Policy realization: Teachers must have sufficient scope to continuously review and renew their moral purposes. Policy decisions should be determined at the immediate level where people will have to realize them . 3. Reculturing: In order for collective action and dialogue to occur, relationships that form the culture of the school, must be built among teachers and others. To develop or adjust these relationships, is to reculture the school . Two kinds of cultures have traditionally existed among teachers ? Cultures of individualism, where teachers have worked largely in isolation, but sharing few resources and ideas, and ? Balkanized cultures, where teachers have worked in self-contained subgroups- like subject departments, and compete for resources and principals favors Both cultures fragment professional relationships, making it hard for teachers to build on one anothers expertise. They also stifle the moral support necessary for risk-taking and experimentation. I would endeavour to reculture the school to create combined cultures among teachers and with the wider community. My aim is to create an atmosphere of trust in which teachers can share resources, deal with complex issues, and celebrate successes. Teamwork also promotes the development of a mutual professional language. I would recognize that diverse expertise contributes to learning, problem solving, and critical inquiry. I would have an orientation workshop in which the value of diverse expertise and viewpoints will be discussed. 4. Restructuring: Cultures are grounded in structures of time and space, which shape relationships. Structures of teacher isolation have their roots in schools in which children are moved through prescribed curriculums, from grade to grade, teacher to teacher. Similarly, balkanized teacher cultures are often a product of subject department structures based on the system of Carnegie units, devised in the United States in the 1920s .If the schedule does not allow teachers to meet during the regular school day, they may become worn down and captives of their schedule,. Consequently, collaboration becomes exhausting and unnatural rather than based on genuine commitment and working relationships. These are some of the strategies I propose to solve the structural problems with : Routinely coordinated planning times to bring together teachers who teach the same grade or subject. Place 1st and 6th grade teachers in adjoining classrooms can begin to break down stereotypes and the confines between the upper and lower ends of elementary school. Peer tutoring to bring together students of different ages as well as the teachers who supervise them. Teacher teams, multi-age groups and shared decision-making teams Block-scheduling, mini-schools or sub-schools 1. Organizational learning: Working together builds relationships , collective resolve and it’s a source of learning. It helps people to see problems as things to be solved and to value the different voices of less important members of the organization. Collaborative cultures turn individual learning into shared learning. Some teachers are regular explorers, ardent readers, keen conference-goers, and willing committee and task force volunteers. Others make small changes with their own classes where they know their efforts will make a difference .Change and continuous learning are important but so are consolidation and routine. Schools and teachers, however, have to deal with many mandates they do not control, but are frequently blamed for poorly designed tests or inappropriate curriculums If organizational learning is to help us in school renewal, the concept ought to be renewed in ways more suited to public school realities. 6. Positive politics Teachers exercise power over their students, administrators exercise power over teachers, and the smarter teachers know how to manipulate or maneuver around administrators. Schools are becoming more subject to the pressures of diverse groups with single-issue interests. The moves toward site-based management are also making schools and what they do more overtly political. Although many teachers feel that getting involved in politics is selfish and objectionable, not all politics is bad. Here are some ways I would encourage teachers to apply positive politics to benefit students: ? Understand the political configuration of your school. Who has formal and informal power? How do they exercise it? How are resources allocated? ? Act politically to secure support and resources for the good of your own students and, indeed, all students. Use diplomatic tactics, trade favors, influence power brokers, build alliances, lobby for support, introduce proposals before presenting them in detail, and be sure how to meets the interests of others. ? Empower others to be more competent. Assist students through cooperative instruction, active involvement in innovation, and by allowing self-assessment and peer assessment. Empower parents by communicating with them in plain language, building partnerships with them , and keeping them informed of new developments.. Empower colleagues by working with them, involving them in decision making, sharing leadership, and sharing with them your weaknesses , and uncertainties as a leader as well as your triumphs. ? Accept conflict as an intrinsic part of change. Fruitful conflict exposes differences, shows sensitivity to opposing interests and positions, prevents false consensus, and promotes movement beyond early fears about ones own threatened interests. ? Regain the discussion of education. Challenge the business rhetoric and express your principles through memorable phrases, vivid examples, and simple stories. A systems approach: Schools consist of subsystems, and to effect long-term change, the whole system should be changed as any alteration in one subsystem affect others. Issues should be dealt with as manifestations of interrelated forces. The administrator should deal with the existing patterns’ of human behavior, and by analyzing the specific field of forces. Schools develop a broad range of systems that help people function amidst the complexity. I would seek to strengthen the organizational goals by making sure that: all organizational leaders clearly understand what results they are accountable for, and that it matters that they should deliver expected results . Should there be some discrepancies between accountabilities, they should be resolved. I would attempt in the following ways to endure that decisions are made by knowledgeable people. a reporting structure is designed to fit the needs of the strategy and the values of the organization. Timely feedback is given, and use the performance appraisal to summarize feedback given throughout the year An approval system is established that evaluates projects rigorously, and that frees the organization to make good decisions. The criteria and process of the system should enable all to make better business decisions. -Spending authority is allocated to people’s accountabilities and the need of their jobs, and also that there are good controls in place for spending authority at any level. References: 1. Robert G. Owens/ Thomas H. Valesky:2007: 9th Edition: Organizational Behavior in Education: Adaptive Leadership and Reform 2. Freiberg, H. Jerome. School Climate : Measuring, Improving and Sustaining Healthy Learning Environments. 3. Best Practice BRIEFS No31, Dec 2004: Betty Tableman / Adrienne Herron 4. Building a Learning Community: The Culture and Climate of Schools: Angus MacNeil, Valerie Maclin 5. The Role of Organizational Climate and Culture in the School Improvement Process: A Review of the Knowledge Base: Ronald Lindahl Course Name: DYNAMICS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Exam 2: Respond in detail to the following questions (no less than 3-4 pages per questions: 1. Define the term loosely coupled systems and give a specific example of how this concept is used to understand school organizations 2. In a school where you are the principal, illustrate how this school has a positive school climate. In your response, identify the four primary dimensions of school climate according to Taguiri’s model. For each of these dimensions describe how it is implemented in this school to produce a positive climate, and give at least one specific example for each dimension. Finally, indicate how you, as principal, continually assess the climate relative to these dimensions. 3. As the principal of a school (you choose the grade levels), propose a plan for school renewal using organizational development as a change strategy. For the past several years, the students achievement test scores have declined and the school overall has had very low test scores compared to similar schools in the district. In your response, identify at least three of the 10 concepts that characterize ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and for each illustrate how these will be used to improve the school. 1. The management of schools are perceived to be bureaucratic. Typically, the school structure is a hierarchically connected pyramid of units under strong central control. However, scholars of organizations have found that schools are characterized by structural looseness, that schools in a district have an element of sovereignty and freedom, and that the management of teachers under a principal is much more broad and wide-ranging as thought before. Charles Bidwell has pointed out that, given the nature of the school’s task, clients and technology, that this structural looseness is a functionally necessary arrangement. Karl Weick and James G. March indicated that schools do not consist of hierarchical units as in true bureaucracies, but are loosely coupled as systems. â€Å" The beauty of this depiction is that it captures a different set of realities within educational organizations than are caught when these same organizations are viewed throughout the tenets of bureaucratic theory.† ( Owens / Valesky: 2007:165) Rational concepts, such as planning, goal-setting, job descriptions , evaluation and reward systems fail to adequately describe how schools function. This fact brings a receptiveness to understanding schools by non- traditional ways, such as the notion of loose coupling. Loosely coupled systems are subsystems in the institution that are connected to each other, but still sustain their own identities and function independently. Their interaction is weak, and relatively insignificant . For example, the guidance office is supposed to report to the principal’s office, but interaction between them is seldom, and responses to these interactions are slow. The coupling may hence be described as loose . Another example of loose coupling could be the school library and the principal’s office. The librarian is supposed to report to the principal’s office, similar to the cafeteria manager, or school nurse, or other non-instructional facets of the school. The librarian is responsible for resources, and smooth functioning of all aspects of the library. The librarian seldomly reports to the principal unless there is some unusual situation that calls for the principal’s direct involvement. By the mid-80s, consensus were reached that the concept of loosely coupled systems might describe previously misunderstood concepts of organizations. It is however, still not adequate description of how schools function. Many aspects of bureaucracy can still be found in schools . It is crucial to understand that institutions are loosely coupled in some ways, and bureaucratic in others. John Meyer and Brian Rowans found bureaucratic mechanisms such as teacher evaluations, peer observations, observation feedbacks, cooperative grade level planning and teaching, absent in American schools in 34 school districts. Evidence of other forms of supervision, reminiscent of the No Child Left Behind Act, such as student evaluations, detailed specification of curriculum, checking student mastery of precious grade’s work, were found. Instruction is the central being of schools . Contrary to bureaucratic notions, it is loosely coupled because administrators do not exercise direct control over it. Although school managers are held responsible for the curriculum and instructional programs, they have limited power to control content of, and method of instruction. Since the advent of labor unions , their power to do so, have significantly diminished. Meyer and Rowan reported that only 12% of school managers indicated they could make decisions concerning what teachers teach, and only 4% felt they had considerable power to decide instructional methods. They do have indirect influence on instructional behavior by bureaucratic means , such as, Control of time: time schedules, frequency of interruption of lessons, pulling out of students for special activities, paperwork to be completed, How many and what kind of classes to assign Grouping: Heterogeneously or homogeneously, self-contained or team-teaching, Control of resources: Assignment of teaching space, availability of equipment and supplies Teachers have increasingly sought protection from these mechanisms, and to have some participation in it through collective bargaining. School managers have considerably more control over non-instructional activities, such as bus schedules, issuing of paychecks, and attendance . This is described as tightly coupled because they are scrupulously monitored. 82% of principals reported involvement in scheduling, 75% in student assignment, and 88% in hiring of staff. Contemporary scholars conclude frequently that loose coupling is faulty, and that schools should stick to the classical norm. Hence many political initiatives demanded toughening up of standards. This was seen in the form of new curriculum additions, more testing, and more specifications of teaching methods. The focus is on understanding educational institutions in their current state of being in order to yield better comprehension of institutions and organizational management. Studies show that a more subtle , powerful method exists to exert power over instructional activities, that is, the development of organizational culture. 2. School climate is the heart and soul of a school. It is that essence of a school that all role players to love it and to look forward to being there each school day. It helps people to feel feel personal worth, dignity and importance, while simultaneously helping to create a sense of belonging to something beyond ourselves. The climate of a school can promote resilience or become a risk factor in the lives of people who work and learn in a place called school. A school’s climate can define the quality of a school that creates healthy learning places; nurtures children’s and parents’ dreams and aspirations; stimulates teachers’ creativity and enthusiasm, and elevates all of its members. ( Freiberg and TA Stein: ) Schools have their own distinctive characteristics. Organizational climate has triumphed over other terminology such as ethos, atmosphere, personality and tone in attempts to describe the idiosyncratic nature of schools. Climate generally describes the traits of the environment in its totality. According to Renato Taguiri, the environment consists of 4 dynamically interrelated dimensions. He presented culture as one of four components of organizational climate, along with ecology, milieu, and organization or structure. If I was principal of an Elementary School, (grades K-6), I would try to utilize these dimensions to enhance school climate in the following ways: Ecology refers to the physical and material elements of a work place: building, technology, facilities, furniture, and so forth. There is a need to provide â€Å"something more than mere housing†, the need for esprit de corps , which means â€Å"spirit of the body†, a common spirit of enthusiasm, a liveliness of mind and expression among the members of the group. I would attempt to use the ecology and physical elements of the school to create an inviting and friendly atmosphere , thereby fostering a positive climate. A building can be old, and traditional, yet be clean, tidy and well-organized. Hallways and classrooms should be attractively decorated with student work, information about upcoming events, study themes and field trips. In terms of the safety aspect, an evacuation / emergency plan should be posted in strategic places, and all teachers and students should practice the fire/tornado drills, as well as know what to do in case of a lockdown. All available space should be optimally utilized. Classrooms should be well-equipped with facilities and technology to maximize the teaching and learning environment, is vital. Modern-day classrooms are equipped with smartboards, computers, and have internet access. Resources, such as textbooks should be available to teachers and students, as well as a well-resourced library. Classroom size should be manageable, and teachers should be able to print, and photocopy as needed, within reasonable limits. The bell-schedule is another important aspect of the day, without which a typical school day could be chaotic. Even the teacher’s lounge or cafeteria should reflect emphasis on a well-organized environment, because this is where relationships between teachers, learners and other staff are formed. The second dimension of school climate, is milieu: It is the social aspect, and refers to the people in an organization: number of employees, socio-economic status, race, education, salary levels, and so forth. An administrator’s task is people-related, so good interpersonal relationships must exist between people in the school, and the right type of climate should exist so people would feel mutually committed to organizational goals. Firstly, I would make sure all staff can utilize their skills. All staff should feel they have support from management, and that there are channels and structures, through which they can vent. Teachers should feel they have some input in decision-making with regards to curriculum, instructional methods, fundraising, budget expenditure and so forth. As school manager I would make sure that there are no ambiguity with regards to expectations about hours, responsibilities, and procedures. All staff should feel they are treated fairly, and with dignity and respect, and that a complete absence of favoritism exists. I would like the perception of teaching as a profession to be elevated as it is perceived as lower status and income as others, and thereby help teachers to feel more pride in their chosen profession. Salary is a public indication of a profession’s status, and teachers’ remuneration is low relative to other professional groups. This is something I could address with bargaining councils. Yearly retreats and end of term functions with a focus on problem-solving, rather than problem prevention, reaffirm commitment to common goals. These retreats should be open to all employees, and reaffirm commitment to learners and each other. The third dimension of school climate is social system, which refers to the organization, administration, decision making procedures, and communication patterns. Owens and Valesky find the word organization as more aptly descriptive of dimension than social system. Level of organization stems from factors that are directly controlled by leaders, therefore there is a close link between their management choices, and the resulting organizational climate. Some consider social system as a disorganized natural order of things, whereas organization accentuates the manager’s responsibility clearer. Modern day research tends to focus more on the role of culture in shaping organizational climate. In a school where I’m principal, I would encourage staff members to feel the freedom to present ideas for development as long as it fits in with the school’s curriculum and policies. I would try to find strategies to enhance teacher involvement in decision making and to improve the quality of work life. I would strive to give teachers input into decision-making re. curriculum, text book selection, course content, special programs, but also into managerial decisions such as hiring and budget matters. I would strive to provide clarity about expectations and work direction, but not so much as to provide a sense that work is routine. If teachers are assigned tasks, I would grant them some freedom to implement them without interruption by their immediate superiors. Teachers expect substantial autonomy in their work, and to be allowed a degree of initiative and creativity. I would afford them the opportunity to utilize their own special abilities and talents, and be allowed to see the results of their work. I would like teachers to look upon me as their principal as a colleague in the sense that I provide information and support , as well as evaluate their work performance. I would attempt, to the best of my ability, to take into account teachers’ opinions, and suggestions. I would make teachers aware of advancement opportunities in recognition of greater levels of expertise. It is important to include opportunities for advancement as a work environment dimension for professionals. Rationality of fairness of advancement appears to be an additional work environment concern. The more teachers feel that they have opportunities for advancement, the more committed they are to the organization. The forth dimension of school climate is culture: There are several definitions of the word â€Å"culture: â€Å"Culture is to the organization what personality is to the individual – a hidden, yet unifying theme that provides meaning, direction, and mobilization† . Kilman, Saxton, and Serpa (1985b). According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture refers to the tried and tested corpus of solutions which are taught to new employees as the correct way of dealing with issues – the way we do things around here. Culture is a system of shared values and beliefs that interrelates to an organization’s employees, structures and control systems to generate behavioral standards. Culture and Climate both consider the interrelation of recent experiences and intangible powers in the organizations’ environment. Culture refers to the behavioral standards, hypotheses and beliefs , and climate refers to the observations of role players within the organization to exhibit those beliefs. Owens and Valesky define organizational culture in several ways: Organizational culture is the rules of the game: the unseen meanings in the rulebook that insures unity. Culture consists of the conclusions a group of people draws from its experience. An organization’s culture consists largely of what people believe about what works and what does not. As school principal, I would attempt to improve the school culture, firstly by developing a mission statement that reflects the purpose and the shared vision of the schoo. I would have students recite the mission statement, along withsinging of the National Anthem, every morning before classes commence . To encourage a school culture and climate that promotes individuals who are bonded together by natural will, and who are together bound to a set of shared ideas, and ideals then principals must strengthen their efforts towards improving connections, coherence, capacity, commitment, and collaboration among their members (Sergiovanni, 2001). I would encourage a supportive climate in these ways : Continual sharing of ideas with regards to instruction, curriculum, testing, school organization and the value of specific knowledge. Collaboration by allowing teachers to become involved in team teaching and other collaborative efforts in program development, writing and research Equality_ by dispensing with formalities and allow anyone to vote in a department meeting. Practical application by teachers constantly reflecting their practices Organizational culture is usually studied through observing organizational behavior and environmental elements. The study of symbolism is central in an examination of organizational culture: the rituals, myths, traditions, rites and language through which values are perpetuated. A school can be perceived as holding particular values, principles that have a strong impact on its role players. It is vital to understand which techniques organizations employ to enforce desired behaviors, if one wishes to comprehend organizational culture. Artifacts and symbols are representative of the culture and history fot he school so I would have trophies, cultural artifacts, medals and photographs displayed in school hallways and foyers. The country flag should be displayed in each classroom, and students should sing the anthem each morning. The school would participate in celebrations relative to their history such as National Day, (UAE), Independence Day (USA), and Freedom Day,( SA). Other relevant celebrations are of a cultural nature, such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Awareness of global matters could be celebrated by participating in Arbor Day ( planting a tree day) and Earth Day. To promote reading, I would encourage events such as Dress up as a Favorite Story character and have teachers devote a section of the school day to reading. The teaching of History should incorporate telling of myths, fables, and stories related to the country’s history. 3b. How would I as principal evaluate the climate relative to these dimensions: Improving school climate requires a consistent effort and reflection upon the issues that have led to current conditions. School climate should be measured from multiple perspectives, and throughout the school year, so that each person responsible for the education of youth can see how healthy the learning environment is and what needs to be changed or sustained. There are universal questions faculty and students could reflect on when evaluating school climate: How the school arrived a t a particular junction, what changes have occurred since and what adjustments are needed, and the role of each person in sustaining a healthy learning environment? Direct ways to measure school climate, are -survey instruments, stories, discussions, cases, student drawings, teacher and student journals, interviews, video and ambient noise check lists to describe what is occurring in school and classrooms collect climate data. -the use of climate surveys, classroom observations, interviews, video taping, journal narratives, student drawings, and focus groups Indirect measures are Analyzing existing data sources kept by the teacher, school or local education authority, including attendance records of students and teachers; visits to the nurse’s office (which are measures of student stress levels); discipline referrals to the office; suspensions and expulsions; teacher and administrator turnover rates; student achievement; student mobility rates and the like. I would endeavor to draw up a plan for school effectiveness, i.e. decide which outcomes I want to pursue, and then define their climate and effectiveness factors as instruments to achieve their intended outcomes. The Dutch checklist for the assessment of the quality of classroom and school climate factors is another useful tool to get a clearer picture of strong and weak points of the school and classroom climate. 3. Organizational Development is the process by which a learning organization adjusts to evolving changes in the environment as well as an attempt to increase the self-renewal capacity of school districts and schools. For the purpose of this assignment I will focus on three of the concepts OD involves:, and to show how I would implement them into a plan for Organizational Development: 1. The goals : To improve the functioning of the organization in order to facilitate decision-making , and to develop a work-oriented culture that will increase the involvement of the people in the organization in these areas. Firstly, I would select a group to work with me to set the goals to be obtained. It is imperative that all role players should agree on the organization’s goals and how to accomplish them. There are distinct benefits to having a clear set of organizational goals. Goals -serve as guidelines for action, directing and channelling of employee efforts. provide constraints in the organization. Choosing specific goals reduces discretion in pursuing other goals. legitimize an organization’s activities and existence. define standards of performance and if they are clearly stated, they set standards for evaluation. motivate: By presenting a challenge and how to achieve it, organizational goals act as behavioural incentives. If goals are set as a group, people will support them and be responsible for what they help create. Greater commitment and motivation can be expected. There will be a clear understanding of the goals and rationale for selecting the group. If all members contributed to the goal setting, it will represent a group consensus instead of one person’s ideas. This is how I would go about setting the goals with my group: 1. Brainstorm a list of potential goals as a group. 2. Choose from the brainstorm list which to be worked on 3. Prioritize. 4. Determine objectives for each goal and plans of action for each objective 5. Move into action, follow through. The next step is to develop an Action Plan. The following needs to be determined: 1. What is to be done and how is it to be accomplished? 2. Availability of resources 3. People responsible for completing each task 4. What is the deadline and how will results be measured? Once the Action Plan is in place, I will now designate people to specific tasks, set up a time frame, and plan regular feedback opportunities. It is also important to consider what alternative actions could be taken should parts of the Action Plan not function properly. 5. System renewal: To enable the organization to initiate and adjust to change, develop problem-solving abilities, have an increased sense of purpose and direction and to impact the environment. The postmodern culture is characterized by many contradictions that have direct implications for educators.: -Many parents have given up responsibility for the very things they want schools to emphasize, for example, they demand more literature graduates, but allow their children to watch television for hours. -Businesses often fail to use the skills that it demands schools produce. The economic world is dominated by transnational corporations, national education systems encourage national curriculum and standards. Society demands more flexible work skills, and multicultural diversity, and expect schools to consider multiple intelligences, different learning styles, heterogenous grouping, and the integration of special needs students into mainstream. I propose six principles of school renewal that take these contradictions into account: 1. Moving missions: Common missions that require complete consensus, and have to appeal to so many different interests, can become weak. Mission statements can become too fixed to enable satisfactory responsiveness to changes in policy mandates, personnel, or student populations. Teachers and schools should therefore review and renew their purposes over time. 2. Policy realization: Teachers must have sufficient scope to continuously review and renew their moral purposes. Policy decisions should be determined at the immediate level where people will have to realize them . 3. Reculturing: In order for collective action and dialogue to occur, relationships that form the culture of the school, must be built among teachers and others. To develop or adjust these relationships, is to reculture the school . Two kinds of cultures have traditionally existed among teachers ? Cultures of individualism, where teachers have worked largely in isolation, but sharing few resources and ideas, and ? Balkanized cultures, where teachers have worked in self-contained subgroups- like subject departments, and compete for resources and principals favors Both cultures fragment professional relationships, making it hard for teachers to build on one anothers expertise. They also stifle the moral support necessary for risk-taking and experimentation. I would endeavour to reculture the school to create combined cultures among teachers and with the wider community. My aim is to create an atmosphere of trust in which teachers can share resources, deal with complex issues, and celebrate successes. Teamwork also promotes the development of a mutual professional language. I would recognize that diverse expertise contributes to learning, problem solving, and critical inquiry. I would have an orientation workshop in which the value of diverse expertise and viewpoints will be discussed. 4. Restructuring: Cultures are grounded in structures of time and space, which shape relationships. Structures of teacher isolation have their roots in schools in which children are moved through prescribed curriculums, from grade to grade, teacher to teacher. Similarly, balkanized teacher cultures are often a product of subject department structures based on the system of Carnegie units, devised in the United States in the 1920s .If the schedule does not allow teachers to meet during the regular school day, they may become worn down and captives of their schedule,. Consequently, collaboration becomes exhausting and unnatural rather than based on genuine commitment and working relationships. These are some of the strategies I propose to solve the structural problems with : Routinely coordinated planning times to bring together teachers who teach the same grade or subject. Place 1st and 6th grade teachers in adjoining classrooms can begin to break down stereotypes and the confines between the upper and lower ends of elementary school. Peer tutoring to bring together students of different ages as well as the teachers who supervise them. Teacher teams, multi-age groups and shared decision-making teams Block-scheduling, mini-schools or sub-schools 1. Organizational learning: Working together builds relationships , collective resolve and it’s a source of learning. It helps people to see problems as things to be solved and to value the different voices of less important members of the organization. Collaborative cultures turn individual learning into shared learning. Some teachers are regular explorers, ardent readers, keen conference-goers, and willing committee and task force volunteers. Others make small changes with their own classes where they know their efforts will make a difference .Change and continuous learning are important but so are consolidation and routine. Schools and teachers, however, have to deal with many mandates they do not control, but are frequently blamed for poorly designed tests or inappropriate curriculums If organizational learning is to help us in school renewal, the concept ought to be renewed in ways more suited to public school realities. 6. Positive politics Teachers exercise power over their students, administrators exercise power over teachers, and the smarter teachers know how to manipulate or maneuver around administrators. Schools are becoming more subject to the pressures of diverse groups with single-issue interests. The moves toward site-based management are also making schools and what they do more overtly political. Although many teachers feel that getting involved in politics is selfish and objectionable, not all politics is bad. Here are some ways I would encourage teachers to apply positive politics to benefit students: ? Understand the political configuration of your school. Who has formal and informal power? How do they exercise it? How are resources allocated? ? Act politically to secure support and resources for the good of your own students and, indeed, all students. Use diplomatic tactics, trade favors, influence power brokers, build alliances, lobby for support, introduce proposals before presenting them in detail, and be sure how to meets the interests of others. ? Empower others to be more competent. Assist students through cooperative instruction, active involvement in innovation, and by allowing self-assessment and peer assessment. Empower parents by communicating with them in plain language, building partnerships with them , and keeping them informed of new developments.. Empower colleagues by working with them, involving them in decision making, sharing leadership, and sharing with them your weaknesses , and uncertainties as a leader as well as your triumphs. ? Accept conflict as an intrinsic part of change. Fruitful conflict exposes differences, shows sensitivity to opposing interests and positions, prevents false consensus, and promotes movement beyond early fears about ones own threatened interests. ? Regain the discussion of education. Challenge the business rhetoric and express your principles through memorable phrases, vivid examples, and simple stories. A systems approach: Schools consist of subsystems, and to effect long-term change, the whole system should be changed as any alteration in one subsystem affect others. Issues should be dealt with as manifestations of interrelated forces. The administrator should deal with the existing patterns’ of human behavior, and by analyzing the specific field of forces. Schools develop a broad range of systems that help people function amidst the complexity. I would seek to strengthen the organizational goals by making sure that: all organizational leaders clearly understand what results they are accountable for, and that it matters that they should deliver expected results . Should there be some discrepancies between accountabilities, they should be resolved. I would attempt in the following ways to endure that decisions are made by knowledgeable people. a reporting structure is designed to fit the needs of the strategy and the values of the organization. Timely feedback is given, and use the performance appraisal to summarize feedback given throughout the year An approval system is established that evaluates projects rigorously, and that frees the organization to make good decisions. The criteria and process of the system should enable all to make better business decisions. -Spending authority is allocated to people’s accountabilities and the need of their jobs, and also that there are good controls in place for spending authority at any level. References: 1. Robert G. Owens/ Thomas H. Valesky:2007: 9th Edition: Organizational Behavior in Education: Adaptive Leadership and Reform 2. Freiberg, H. Jerome. School Climate : Measuring, Improving and Sustaining Healthy Learning Environments. 3. Best Practice BRIEFS No31, Dec 2004: Betty Tableman / Adrienne Herron 4. Building a Learning Community: The Culture and Climate of Schools: Angus MacNeil, Valerie Maclin 5. 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