Schools as Loosely Coupled Systems

Schools as Loosely Coupled Systems Free Online Research Papers Course Name: DYNAMICS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Exam 2: Respond in detail to the following questions (no less than 3-4 pages per questions: 1. Define the term loosely coupled systems and give a specific example of how this concept is used to understand school organizations 2. In a school where you are the principal, illustrate how this school has a positive school climate. In your response, identify the four primary dimensions of school climate according to Taguiri’s model. For each of these dimensions describe how it is implemented in this school to produce a positive climate, and give at least one specific example for each dimension. Finally, indicate how you, as principal, continually assess the climate relative to these dimensions. 3. As the principal of a school (you choose the grade levels), propose a plan for school renewal using organizational development as a change strategy. For the past several years, the students achievement test scores have declined and the school overall has had very low test scores compared to similar schools in the district. In your response, identify at least three of the 10 concepts that characterize ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and for each illustrate how these will be used to improve the school. 1. The management of schools are perceived to be bureaucratic. Typically, the school structure is a hierarchically connected pyramid of units under strong central control. However, scholars of organizations have found that schools are characterized by structural looseness, that schools in a district have an element of sovereignty and freedom, and that the management of teachers under a principal is much more broad and wide-ranging as thought before. Charles Bidwell has pointed out that, given the nature of the school’s task, clients and technology, that this structural looseness is a functionally necessary arrangement. Karl Weick and James G. March indicated that schools do not consist of hierarchical units as in true bureaucracies, but are loosely coupled as systems. â€Å" The beauty of this depiction is that it captures a different set of realities within educational organizations than are caught when these same organizations are viewed throughout the tenets of bureaucratic theory.† ( Owens / Valesky: 2007:165) Rational concepts, such as planning, goal-setting, job descriptions , evaluation and reward systems fail to adequately describe how schools function. This fact brings a receptiveness to understanding schools by non- traditional ways, such as the notion of loose coupling. Loosely coupled systems are subsystems in the institution that are connected to each other, but still sustain their own identities and function independently. Their interaction is weak, and relatively insignificant . For example, the guidance office is supposed to report to the principal’s office, but interaction between them is seldom, and responses to these interactions are slow. The coupling may hence be described as loose . Another example of loose coupling could be the school library and the principal’s office. The librarian is supposed to report to the principal’s office, similar to the cafeteria manager, or school nurse, or other non-instructional facets of the school. The librarian is responsible for resources, and smooth functioning of all aspects of the library. The librarian seldomly reports to the principal unless there is some unusual situation that calls for the principal’s direct involvement. By the mid-80s, consensus were reached that the concept of loosely coupled systems might describe previously misunderstood concepts of organizations. It is however, still not adequate description of how schools function. Many aspects of bureaucracy can still be found in schools . It is crucial to understand that institutions are loosely coupled in some ways, and bureaucratic in others. John Meyer and Brian Rowans found bureaucratic mechanisms such as teacher evaluations, peer observations, observation feedbacks, cooperative grade level planning and teaching, absent in American schools in 34 school districts. Evidence of other forms of supervision, reminiscent of the No Child Left Behind Act, such as student evaluations, detailed specification of curriculum, checking student mastery of precious grade’s work, were found. Instruction is the central being of schools . Contrary to bureaucratic notions, it is loosely coupled because administrators do not exercise direct control over it. Although school managers are held responsible for the curriculum and instructional programs, they have limited power to control content of, and method of instruction. Since the advent of labor unions , their power to do so, have significantly diminished. Meyer and Rowan reported that only 12% of school managers indicated they could make decisions concerning what teachers teach, and only 4% felt they had considerable power to decide instructional methods. They do have indirect influence on instructional behavior by bureaucratic means , such as, Control of time: time schedules, frequency of interruption of lessons, pulling out of students for special activities, paperwork to be completed, How many and what kind of classes to assign Grouping: Heterogeneously or homogeneously, self-contained or team-teaching, Control of resources: Assignment of teaching space, availability of equipment and supplies Teachers have increasingly sought protection from these mechanisms, and to have some participation in it through collective bargaining. School managers have considerably more control over non-instructional activities, such as bus schedules, issuing of paychecks, and attendance . This is described as tightly coupled because they are scrupulously monitored. 82% of principals reported involvement in scheduling, 75% in student assignment, and 88% in hiring of staff. Contemporary scholars conclude frequently that loose coupling is faulty, and that schools should stick to the classical norm. Hence many political initiatives demanded toughening up of standards. This was seen in the form of new curriculum additions, more testing, and more specifications of teaching methods. The focus is on understanding educational institutions in their current state of being in order to yield better comprehension of institutions and organizational management. Studies show that a more subtle , powerful method exists to exert power over instructional activities, that is, the development of organizational culture. 2. School climate is the heart and soul of a school. It is that essence of a school that all role players to love it and to look forward to being there each school day. It helps people to feel feel personal worth, dignity and importance, while simultaneously helping to create a sense of belonging to something beyond ourselves. The climate of a school can promote resilience or become a risk factor in the lives of people who work and learn in a place called school. A school’s climate can define the quality of a school that creates healthy learning places; nurtures children’s and parents’ dreams and aspirations; stimulates teachers’ creativity and enthusiasm, and elevates all of its members. ( Freiberg and TA Stein: ) Schools have their own distinctive characteristics. Organizational climate has triumphed over other terminology such as ethos, atmosphere, personality and tone in attempts to describe the idiosyncratic nature of schools. Climate generally describes the traits of the environment in its totality. According to Renato Taguiri, the environment consists of 4 dynamically interrelated dimensions. He presented culture as one of four components of organizational climate, along with ecology, milieu, and organization or structure. If I was principal of an Elementary School, (grades K-6), I would try to utilize these dimensions to enhance school climate in the following ways: Ecology refers to the physical and material elements of a work place: building, technology, facilities, furniture, and so forth. There is a need to provide â€Å"something more than mere housing†, the need for esprit de corps , which means â€Å"spirit of the body†, a common spirit of enthusiasm, a liveliness of mind and expression among the members of the group. I would attempt to use the ecology and physical elements of the school to create an inviting and friendly atmosphere , thereby fostering a positive climate. A building can be old, and traditional, yet be clean, tidy and well-organized. Hallways and classrooms should be attractively decorated with student work, information about upcoming events, study themes and field trips. In terms of the safety aspect, an evacuation / emergency plan should be posted in strategic places, and all teachers and students should practice the fire/tornado drills, as well as know what to do in case of a lockdown. All available space should be optimally utilized. Classrooms should be well-equipped with facilities and technology to maximize the teaching and learning environment, is vital. Modern-day classrooms are equipped with smartboards, computers, and have internet access. Resources, such as textbooks should be available to teachers and students, as well as a well-resourced library. Classroom size should be manageable, and teachers should be able to print, and photocopy as needed, within reasonable limits. The bell-schedule is another important aspect of the day, without which a typical school day could be chaotic. Even the teacher’s lounge or cafeteria should reflect emphasis on a well-organized environment, because this is where relationships between teachers, learners and other staff are formed. The second dimension of school climate, is milieu: It is the social aspect, and refers to the people in an organization: number of employees, socio-economic status, race, education, salary levels, and so forth. An administrator’s task is people-related, so good interpersonal relationships must exist between people in the school, and the right type of climate should exist so people would feel mutually committed to organizational goals. Firstly, I would make sure all staff can utilize their skills. All staff should feel they have support from management, and that there are channels and structures, through which they can vent. Teachers should feel they have some input in decision-making with regards to curriculum, instructional methods, fundraising, budget expenditure and so forth. As school manager I would make sure that there are no ambiguity with regards to expectations about hours, responsibilities, and procedures. All staff should feel they are treated fairly, and with dignity and respect, and that a complete absence of favoritism exists. I would like the perception of teaching as a profession to be elevated as it is perceived as lower status and income as others, and thereby help teachers to feel more pride in their chosen profession. Salary is a public indication of a profession’s status, and teachers’ remuneration is low relative to other professional groups. This is something I could address with bargaining councils. Yearly retreats and end of term functions with a focus on problem-solving, rather than problem prevention, reaffirm commitment to common goals. These retreats should be open to all employees, and reaffirm commitment to learners and each other. The third dimension of school climate is social system, which refers to the organization, administration, decision making procedures, and communication patterns. Owens and Valesky find the word organization as more aptly descriptive of dimension than social system. Level of organization stems from factors that are directly controlled by leaders, therefore there is a close link between their management choices, and the resulting organizational climate. Some consider social system as a disorganized natural order of things, whereas organization accentuates the manager’s responsibility clearer. Modern day research tends to focus more on the role of culture in shaping organizational climate. In a school where I’m principal, I would encourage staff members to feel the freedom to present ideas for development as long as it fits in with the school’s curriculum and policies. I would try to find strategies to enhance teacher involvement in decision making and to improve the quality of work life. I would strive to give teachers input into decision-making re. curriculum, text book selection, course content, special programs, but also into managerial decisions such as hiring and budget matters. I would strive to provide clarity about expectations and work direction, but not so much as to provide a sense that work is routine. If teachers are assigned tasks, I would grant them some freedom to implement them without interruption by their immediate superiors. Teachers expect substantial autonomy in their work, and to be allowed a degree of initiative and creativity. I would afford them the opportunity to utilize their own special abilities and talents, and be allowed to see the results of their work. I would like teachers to look upon me as their principal as a colleague in the sense that I provide information and support , as well as evaluate their work performance. I would attempt, to the best of my ability, to take into account teachers’ opinions, and suggestions. I would make teachers aware of advancement opportunities in recognition of greater levels of expertise. It is important to include opportunities for advancement as a work environment dimension for professionals. Rationality of fairness of advancement appears to be an additional work environment concern. The more teachers feel that they have opportunities for advancement, the more committed they are to the organization. The forth dimension of school climate is culture: There are several definitions of the word â€Å"culture: â€Å"Culture is to the organization what personality is to the individual – a hidden, yet unifying theme that provides meaning, direction, and mobilization† . Kilman, Saxton, and Serpa (1985b). According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture refers to the tried and tested corpus of solutions which are taught to new employees as the correct way of dealing with issues – the way we do things around here. Culture is a system of shared values and beliefs that interrelates to an organization’s employees, structures and control systems to generate behavioral standards. Culture and Climate both consider the interrelation of recent experiences and intangible powers in the organizations’ environment. Culture refers to the behavioral standards, hypotheses and beliefs , and climate refers to the observations of role players within the organization to exhibit those beliefs. Owens and Valesky define organizational culture in several ways: Organizational culture is the rules of the game: the unseen meanings in the rulebook that insures unity. Culture consists of the conclusions a group of people draws from its experience. An organization’s culture consists largely of what people believe about what works and what does not. As school principal, I would attempt to improve the school culture, firstly by developing a mission statement that reflects the purpose and the shared vision of the schoo. I would have students recite the mission statement, along withsinging of the National Anthem, every morning before classes commence . To encourage a school culture and climate that promotes individuals who are bonded together by natural will, and who are together bound to a set of shared ideas, and ideals then principals must strengthen their efforts towards improving connections, coherence, capacity, commitment, and collaboration among their members (Sergiovanni, 2001). I would encourage a supportive climate in these ways : Continual sharing of ideas with regards to instruction, curriculum, testing, school organization and the value of specific knowledge. Collaboration by allowing teachers to become involved in team teaching and other collaborative efforts in program development, writing and research Equality_ by dispensing with formalities and allow anyone to vote in a department meeting. Practical application by teachers constantly reflecting their practices Organizational culture is usually studied through observing organizational behavior and environmental elements. The study of symbolism is central in an examination of organizational culture: the rituals, myths, traditions, rites and language through which values are perpetuated. A school can be perceived as holding particular values, principles that have a strong impact on its role players. It is vital to understand which techniques organizations employ to enforce desired behaviors, if one wishes to comprehend organizational culture. Artifacts and symbols are representative of the culture and history fot he school so I would have trophies, cultural artifacts, medals and photographs displayed in school hallways and foyers. The country flag should be displayed in each classroom, and students should sing the anthem each morning. The school would participate in celebrations relative to their history such as National Day, (UAE), Independence Day (USA), and Freedom Day,( SA). Other relevant celebrations are of a cultural nature, such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Awareness of global matters could be celebrated by participating in Arbor Day ( planting a tree day) and Earth Day. To promote reading, I would encourage events such as Dress up as a Favorite Story character and have teachers devote a section of the school day to reading. The teaching of History should incorporate telling of myths, fables, and stories related to the country’s history. 3b. How would I as principal evaluate the climate relative to these dimensions: Improving school climate requires a consistent effort and reflection upon the issues that have led to current conditions. School climate should be measured from multiple perspectives, and throughout the school year, so that each person responsible for the education of youth can see how healthy the learning environment is and what needs to be changed or sustained. There are universal questions faculty and students could reflect on when evaluating school climate: How the school arrived a t a particular junction, what changes have occurred since and what adjustments are needed, and the role of each person in sustaining a healthy learning environment? Direct ways to measure school climate, are -survey instruments, stories, discussions, cases, student drawings, teacher and student journals, interviews, video and ambient noise check lists to describe what is occurring in school and classrooms collect climate data. -the use of climate surveys, classroom observations, interviews, video taping, journal narratives, student drawings, and focus groups Indirect measures are Analyzing existing data sources kept by the teacher, school or local education authority, including attendance records of students and teachers; visits to the nurse’s office (which are measures of student stress levels); discipline referrals to the office; suspensions and expulsions; teacher and administrator turnover rates; student achievement; student mobility rates and the like. I would endeavor to draw up a plan for school effectiveness, i.e. decide which outcomes I want to pursue, and then define their climate and effectiveness factors as instruments to achieve their intended outcomes. The Dutch checklist for the assessment of the quality of classroom and school climate factors is another useful tool to get a clearer picture of strong and weak points of the school and classroom climate. 3. Organizational Development is the process by which a learning organization adjusts to evolving changes in the environment as well as an attempt to increase the self-renewal capacity of school districts and schools. For the purpose of this assignment I will focus on three of the concepts OD involves:, and to show how I would implement them into a plan for Organizational Development: 1. The goals : To improve the functioning of the organization in order to facilitate decision-making , and to develop a work-oriented culture that will increase the involvement of the people in the organization in these areas. Firstly, I would select a group to work with me to set the goals to be obtained. It is imperative that all role players should agree on the organization’s goals and how to accomplish them. There are distinct benefits to having a clear set of organizational goals. Goals -serve as guidelines for action, directing and channelling of employee efforts. provide constraints in the organization. Choosing specific goals reduces discretion in pursuing other goals. legitimize an organization’s activities and existence. define standards of performance and if they are clearly stated, they set standards for evaluation. motivate: By presenting a challenge and how to achieve it, organizational goals act as behavioural incentives. If goals are set as a group, people will support them and be responsible for what they help create. Greater commitment and motivation can be expected. There will be a clear understanding of the goals and rationale for selecting the group. If all members contributed to the goal setting, it will represent a group consensus instead of one person’s ideas. This is how I would go about setting the goals with my group: 1. Brainstorm a list of potential goals as a group. 2. Choose from the brainstorm list which to be worked on 3. Prioritize. 4. Determine objectives for each goal and plans of action for each objective 5. Move into action, follow through. The next step is to develop an Action Plan. The following needs to be determined: 1. What is to be done and how is it to be accomplished? 2. Availability of resources 3. People responsible for completing each task 4. What is the deadline and how will results be measured? Once the Action Plan is in place, I will now designate people to specific tasks, set up a time frame, and plan regular feedback opportunities. It is also important to consider what alternative actions could be taken should parts of the Action Plan not function properly. 5. System renewal: To enable the organization to initiate and adjust to change, develop problem-solving abilities, have an increased sense of purpose and direction and to impact the environment. The postmodern culture is characterized by many contradictions that have direct implications for educators.: -Many parents have given up responsibility for the very things they want schools to emphasize, for example, they demand more literature graduates, but allow their children to watch television for hours. -Businesses often fail to use the skills that it demands schools produce. The economic world is dominated by transnational corporations, national education systems encourage national curriculum and standards. Society demands more flexible work skills, and multicultural diversity, and expect schools to consider multiple intelligences, different learning styles, heterogenous grouping, and the integration of special needs students into mainstream. I propose six principles of school renewal that take these contradictions into account: 1. Moving missions: Common missions that require complete consensus, and have to appeal to so many different interests, can become weak. Mission statements can become too fixed to enable satisfactory responsiveness to changes in policy mandates, personnel, or student populations. Teachers and schools should therefore review and renew their purposes over time. 2. Policy realization: Teachers must have sufficient scope to continuously review and renew their moral purposes. Policy decisions should be determined at the immediate level where people will have to realize them . 3. Reculturing: In order for collective action and dialogue to occur, relationships that form the culture of the school, must be built among teachers and others. To develop or adjust these relationships, is to reculture the school . Two kinds of cultures have traditionally existed among teachers ? Cultures of individualism, where teachers have worked largely in isolation, but sharing few resources and ideas, and ? Balkanized cultures, where teachers have worked in self-contained subgroups- like subject departments, and compete for resources and principals favors Both cultures fragment professional relationships, making it hard for teachers to build on one anothers expertise. They also stifle the moral support necessary for risk-taking and experimentation. I would endeavour to reculture the school to create combined cultures among teachers and with the wider community. My aim is to create an atmosphere of trust in which teachers can share resources, deal with complex issues, and celebrate successes. Teamwork also promotes the development of a mutual professional language. I would recognize that diverse expertise contributes to learning, problem solving, and critical inquiry. I would have an orientation workshop in which the value of diverse expertise and viewpoints will be discussed. 4. Restructuring: Cultures are grounded in structures of time and space, which shape relationships. Structures of teacher isolation have their roots in schools in which children are moved through prescribed curriculums, from grade to grade, teacher to teacher. Similarly, balkanized teacher cultures are often a product of subject department structures based on the system of Carnegie units, devised in the United States in the 1920s .If the schedule does not allow teachers to meet during the regular school day, they may become worn down and captives of their schedule,. Consequently, collaboration becomes exhausting and unnatural rather than based on genuine commitment and working relationships. These are some of the strategies I propose to solve the structural problems with : Routinely coordinated planning times to bring together teachers who teach the same grade or subject. Place 1st and 6th grade teachers in adjoining classrooms can begin to break down stereotypes and the confines between the upper and lower ends of elementary school. Peer tutoring to bring together students of different ages as well as the teachers who supervise them. Teacher teams, multi-age groups and shared decision-making teams Block-scheduling, mini-schools or sub-schools 1. Organizational learning: Working together builds relationships , collective resolve and it’s a source of learning. It helps people to see problems as things to be solved and to value the different voices of less important members of the organization. Collaborative cultures turn individual learning into shared learning. Some teachers are regular explorers, ardent readers, keen conference-goers, and willing committee and task force volunteers. Others make small changes with their own classes where they know their efforts will make a difference .Change and continuous learning are important but so are consolidation and routine. Schools and teachers, however, have to deal with many mandates they do not control, but are frequently blamed for poorly designed tests or inappropriate curriculums If organizational learning is to help us in school renewal, the concept ought to be renewed in ways more suited to public school realities. 6. Positive politics Teachers exercise power over their students, administrators exercise power over teachers, and the smarter teachers know how to manipulate or maneuver around administrators. Schools are becoming more subject to the pressures of diverse groups with single-issue interests. The moves toward site-based management are also making schools and what they do more overtly political. Although many teachers feel that getting involved in politics is selfish and objectionable, not all politics is bad. Here are some ways I would encourage teachers to apply positive politics to benefit students: ? Understand the political configuration of your school. Who has formal and informal power? How do they exercise it? How are resources allocated? ? Act politically to secure support and resources for the good of your own students and, indeed, all students. Use diplomatic tactics, trade favors, influence power brokers, build alliances, lobby for support, introduce proposals before presenting them in detail, and be sure how to meets the interests of others. ? Empower others to be more competent. Assist students through cooperative instruction, active involvement in innovation, and by allowing self-assessment and peer assessment. Empower parents by communicating with them in plain language, building partnerships with them , and keeping them informed of new developments.. Empower colleagues by working with them, involving them in decision making, sharing leadership, and sharing with them your weaknesses , and uncertainties as a leader as well as your triumphs. ? Accept conflict as an intrinsic part of change. Fruitful conflict exposes differences, shows sensitivity to opposing interests and positions, prevents false consensus, and promotes movement beyond early fears about ones own threatened interests. ? Regain the discussion of education. Challenge the business rhetoric and express your principles through memorable phrases, vivid examples, and simple stories. A systems approach: Schools consist of subsystems, and to effect long-term change, the whole system should be changed as any alteration in one subsystem affect others. Issues should be dealt with as manifestations of interrelated forces. The administrator should deal with the existing patterns’ of human behavior, and by analyzing the specific field of forces. Schools develop a broad range of systems that help people function amidst the complexity. I would seek to strengthen the organizational goals by making sure that: all organizational leaders clearly understand what results they are accountable for, and that it matters that they should deliver expected results . Should there be some discrepancies between accountabilities, they should be resolved. I would attempt in the following ways to endure that decisions are made by knowledgeable people. a reporting structure is designed to fit the needs of the strategy and the values of the organization. Timely feedback is given, and use the performance appraisal to summarize feedback given throughout the year An approval system is established that evaluates projects rigorously, and that frees the organization to make good decisions. The criteria and process of the system should enable all to make better business decisions. -Spending authority is allocated to people’s accountabilities and the need of their jobs, and also that there are good controls in place for spending authority at any level. References: 1. Robert G. Owens/ Thomas H. Valesky:2007: 9th Edition: Organizational Behavior in Education: Adaptive Leadership and Reform 2. Freiberg, H. Jerome. School Climate : Measuring, Improving and Sustaining Healthy Learning Environments. 3. Best Practice BRIEFS No31, Dec 2004: Betty Tableman / Adrienne Herron 4. Building a Learning Community: The Culture and Climate of Schools: Angus MacNeil, Valerie Maclin 5. The Role of Organizational Climate and Culture in the School Improvement Process: A Review of the Knowledge Base: Ronald Lindahl Course Name: DYNAMICS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Exam 2: Respond in detail to the following questions (no less than 3-4 pages per questions: 1. Define the term loosely coupled systems and give a specific example of how this concept is used to understand school organizations 2. In a school where you are the principal, illustrate how this school has a positive school climate. In your response, identify the four primary dimensions of school climate according to Taguiri’s model. For each of these dimensions describe how it is implemented in this school to produce a positive climate, and give at least one specific example for each dimension. Finally, indicate how you, as principal, continually assess the climate relative to these dimensions. 3. As the principal of a school (you choose the grade levels), propose a plan for school renewal using organizational development as a change strategy. For the past several years, the students achievement test scores have declined and the school overall has had very low test scores compared to similar schools in the district. In your response, identify at least three of the 10 concepts that characterize ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT and for each illustrate how these will be used to improve the school. 1. The management of schools are perceived to be bureaucratic. Typically, the school structure is a hierarchically connected pyramid of units under strong central control. However, scholars of organizations have found that schools are characterized by structural looseness, that schools in a district have an element of sovereignty and freedom, and that the management of teachers under a principal is much more broad and wide-ranging as thought before. Charles Bidwell has pointed out that, given the nature of the school’s task, clients and technology, that this structural looseness is a functionally necessary arrangement. Karl Weick and James G. March indicated that schools do not consist of hierarchical units as in true bureaucracies, but are loosely coupled as systems. â€Å" The beauty of this depiction is that it captures a different set of realities within educational organizations than are caught when these same organizations are viewed throughout the tenets of bureaucratic theory.† ( Owens / Valesky: 2007:165) Rational concepts, such as planning, goal-setting, job descriptions , evaluation and reward systems fail to adequately describe how schools function. This fact brings a receptiveness to understanding schools by non- traditional ways, such as the notion of loose coupling. Loosely coupled systems are subsystems in the institution that are connected to each other, but still sustain their own identities and function independently. Their interaction is weak, and relatively insignificant . For example, the guidance office is supposed to report to the principal’s office, but interaction between them is seldom, and responses to these interactions are slow. The coupling may hence be described as loose . Another example of loose coupling could be the school library and the principal’s office. The librarian is supposed to report to the principal’s office, similar to the cafeteria manager, or school nurse, or other non-instructional facets of the school. The librarian is responsible for resources, and smooth functioning of all aspects of the library. The librarian seldomly reports to the principal unless there is some unusual situation that calls for the principal’s direct involvement. By the mid-80s, consensus were reached that the concept of loosely coupled systems might describe previously misunderstood concepts of organizations. It is however, still not adequate description of how schools function. Many aspects of bureaucracy can still be found in schools . It is crucial to understand that institutions are loosely coupled in some ways, and bureaucratic in others. John Meyer and Brian Rowans found bureaucratic mechanisms such as teacher evaluations, peer observations, observation feedbacks, cooperative grade level planning and teaching, absent in American schools in 34 school districts. Evidence of other forms of supervision, reminiscent of the No Child Left Behind Act, such as student evaluations, detailed specification of curriculum, checking student mastery of precious grade’s work, were found. Instruction is the central being of schools . Contrary to bureaucratic notions, it is loosely coupled because administrators do not exercise direct control over it. Although school managers are held responsible for the curriculum and instructional programs, they have limited power to control content of, and method of instruction. Since the advent of labor unions , their power to do so, have significantly diminished. Meyer and Rowan reported that only 12% of school managers indicated they could make decisions concerning what teachers teach, and only 4% felt they had considerable power to decide instructional methods. They do have indirect influence on instructional behavior by bureaucratic means , such as, Control of time: time schedules, frequency of interruption of lessons, pulling out of students for special activities, paperwork to be completed, How many and what kind of classes to assign Grouping: Heterogeneously or homogeneously, self-contained or team-teaching, Control of resources: Assignment of teaching space, availability of equipment and supplies Teachers have increasingly sought protection from these mechanisms, and to have some participation in it through collective bargaining. School managers have considerably more control over non-instructional activities, such as bus schedules, issuing of paychecks, and attendance . This is described as tightly coupled because they are scrupulously monitored. 82% of principals reported involvement in scheduling, 75% in student assignment, and 88% in hiring of staff. Contemporary scholars conclude frequently that loose coupling is faulty, and that schools should stick to the classical norm. Hence many political initiatives demanded toughening up of standards. This was seen in the form of new curriculum additions, more testing, and more specifications of teaching methods. The focus is on understanding educational institutions in their current state of being in order to yield better comprehension of institutions and organizational management. Studies show that a more subtle , powerful method exists to exert power over instructional activities, that is, the development of organizational culture. 2. School climate is the heart and soul of a school. It is that essence of a school that all role players to love it and to look forward to being there each school day. It helps people to feel feel personal worth, dignity and importance, while simultaneously helping to create a sense of belonging to something beyond ourselves. The climate of a school can promote resilience or become a risk factor in the lives of people who work and learn in a place called school. A school’s climate can define the quality of a school that creates healthy learning places; nurtures children’s and parents’ dreams and aspirations; stimulates teachers’ creativity and enthusiasm, and elevates all of its members. ( Freiberg and TA Stein: ) Schools have their own distinctive characteristics. Organizational climate has triumphed over other terminology such as ethos, atmosphere, personality and tone in attempts to describe the idiosyncratic nature of schools. Climate generally describes the traits of the environment in its totality. According to Renato Taguiri, the environment consists of 4 dynamically interrelated dimensions. He presented culture as one of four components of organizational climate, along with ecology, milieu, and organization or structure. If I was principal of an Elementary School, (grades K-6), I would try to utilize these dimensions to enhance school climate in the following ways: Ecology refers to the physical and material elements of a work place: building, technology, facilities, furniture, and so forth. There is a need to provide â€Å"something more than mere housing†, the need for esprit de corps , which means â€Å"spirit of the body†, a common spirit of enthusiasm, a liveliness of mind and expression among the members of the group. I would attempt to use the ecology and physical elements of the school to create an inviting and friendly atmosphere , thereby fostering a positive climate. A building can be old, and traditional, yet be clean, tidy and well-organized. Hallways and classrooms should be attractively decorated with student work, information about upcoming events, study themes and field trips. In terms of the safety aspect, an evacuation / emergency plan should be posted in strategic places, and all teachers and students should practice the fire/tornado drills, as well as know what to do in case of a lockdown. All available space should be optimally utilized. Classrooms should be well-equipped with facilities and technology to maximize the teaching and learning environment, is vital. Modern-day classrooms are equipped with smartboards, computers, and have internet access. Resources, such as textbooks should be available to teachers and students, as well as a well-resourced library. Classroom size should be manageable, and teachers should be able to print, and photocopy as needed, within reasonable limits. The bell-schedule is another important aspect of the day, without which a typical school day could be chaotic. Even the teacher’s lounge or cafeteria should reflect emphasis on a well-organized environment, because this is where relationships between teachers, learners and other staff are formed. The second dimension of school climate, is milieu: It is the social aspect, and refers to the people in an organization: number of employees, socio-economic status, race, education, salary levels, and so forth. An administrator’s task is people-related, so good interpersonal relationships must exist between people in the school, and the right type of climate should exist so people would feel mutually committed to organizational goals. Firstly, I would make sure all staff can utilize their skills. All staff should feel they have support from management, and that there are channels and structures, through which they can vent. Teachers should feel they have some input in decision-making with regards to curriculum, instructional methods, fundraising, budget expenditure and so forth. As school manager I would make sure that there are no ambiguity with regards to expectations about hours, responsibilities, and procedures. All staff should feel they are treated fairly, and with dignity and respect, and that a complete absence of favoritism exists. I would like the perception of teaching as a profession to be elevated as it is perceived as lower status and income as others, and thereby help teachers to feel more pride in their chosen profession. Salary is a public indication of a profession’s status, and teachers’ remuneration is low relative to other professional groups. This is something I could address with bargaining councils. Yearly retreats and end of term functions with a focus on problem-solving, rather than problem prevention, reaffirm commitment to common goals. These retreats should be open to all employees, and reaffirm commitment to learners and each other. The third dimension of school climate is social system, which refers to the organization, administration, decision making procedures, and communication patterns. Owens and Valesky find the word organization as more aptly descriptive of dimension than social system. Level of organization stems from factors that are directly controlled by leaders, therefore there is a close link between their management choices, and the resulting organizational climate. Some consider social system as a disorganized natural order of things, whereas organization accentuates the manager’s responsibility clearer. Modern day research tends to focus more on the role of culture in shaping organizational climate. In a school where I’m principal, I would encourage staff members to feel the freedom to present ideas for development as long as it fits in with the school’s curriculum and policies. I would try to find strategies to enhance teacher involvement in decision making and to improve the quality of work life. I would strive to give teachers input into decision-making re. curriculum, text book selection, course content, special programs, but also into managerial decisions such as hiring and budget matters. I would strive to provide clarity about expectations and work direction, but not so much as to provide a sense that work is routine. If teachers are assigned tasks, I would grant them some freedom to implement them without interruption by their immediate superiors. Teachers expect substantial autonomy in their work, and to be allowed a degree of initiative and creativity. I would afford them the opportunity to utilize their own special abilities and talents, and be allowed to see the results of their work. I would like teachers to look upon me as their principal as a colleague in the sense that I provide information and support , as well as evaluate their work performance. I would attempt, to the best of my ability, to take into account teachers’ opinions, and suggestions. I would make teachers aware of advancement opportunities in recognition of greater levels of expertise. It is important to include opportunities for advancement as a work environment dimension for professionals. Rationality of fairness of advancement appears to be an additional work environment concern. The more teachers feel that they have opportunities for advancement, the more committed they are to the organization. The forth dimension of school climate is culture: There are several definitions of the word â€Å"culture: â€Å"Culture is to the organization what personality is to the individual – a hidden, yet unifying theme that provides meaning, direction, and mobilization† . Kilman, Saxton, and Serpa (1985b). According to Edgar Schein, organizational culture refers to the tried and tested corpus of solutions which are taught to new employees as the correct way of dealing with issues – the way we do things around here. Culture is a system of shared values and beliefs that interrelates to an organization’s employees, structures and control systems to generate behavioral standards. Culture and Climate both consider the interrelation of recent experiences and intangible powers in the organizations’ environment. Culture refers to the behavioral standards, hypotheses and beliefs , and climate refers to the observations of role players within the organization to exhibit those beliefs. Owens and Valesky define organizational culture in several ways: Organizational culture is the rules of the game: the unseen meanings in the rulebook that insures unity. Culture consists of the conclusions a group of people draws from its experience. An organization’s culture consists largely of what people believe about what works and what does not. As school principal, I would attempt to improve the school culture, firstly by developing a mission statement that reflects the purpose and the shared vision of the schoo. I would have students recite the mission statement, along withsinging of the National Anthem, every morning before classes commence . To encourage a school culture and climate that promotes individuals who are bonded together by natural will, and who are together bound to a set of shared ideas, and ideals then principals must strengthen their efforts towards improving connections, coherence, capacity, commitment, and collaboration among their members (Sergiovanni, 2001). I would encourage a supportive climate in these ways : Continual sharing of ideas with regards to instruction, curriculum, testing, school organization and the value of specific knowledge. Collaboration by allowing teachers to become involved in team teaching and other collaborative efforts in program development, writing and research Equality_ by dispensing with formalities and allow anyone to vote in a department meeting. Practical application by teachers constantly reflecting their practices Organizational culture is usually studied through observing organizational behavior and environmental elements. The study of symbolism is central in an examination of organizational culture: the rituals, myths, traditions, rites and language through which values are perpetuated. A school can be perceived as holding particular values, principles that have a strong impact on its role players. It is vital to understand which techniques organizations employ to enforce desired behaviors, if one wishes to comprehend organizational culture. Artifacts and symbols are representative of the culture and history fot he school so I would have trophies, cultural artifacts, medals and photographs displayed in school hallways and foyers. The country flag should be displayed in each classroom, and students should sing the anthem each morning. The school would participate in celebrations relative to their history such as National Day, (UAE), Independence Day (USA), and Freedom Day,( SA). Other relevant celebrations are of a cultural nature, such as Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Awareness of global matters could be celebrated by participating in Arbor Day ( planting a tree day) and Earth Day. To promote reading, I would encourage events such as Dress up as a Favorite Story character and have teachers devote a section of the school day to reading. The teaching of History should incorporate telling of myths, fables, and stories related to the country’s history. 3b. How would I as principal evaluate the climate relative to these dimensions: Improving school climate requires a consistent effort and reflection upon the issues that have led to current conditions. School climate should be measured from multiple perspectives, and throughout the school year, so that each person responsible for the education of youth can see how healthy the learning environment is and what needs to be changed or sustained. There are universal questions faculty and students could reflect on when evaluating school climate: How the school arrived a t a particular junction, what changes have occurred since and what adjustments are needed, and the role of each person in sustaining a healthy learning environment? Direct ways to measure school climate, are -survey instruments, stories, discussions, cases, student drawings, teacher and student journals, interviews, video and ambient noise check lists to describe what is occurring in school and classrooms collect climate data. -the use of climate surveys, classroom observations, interviews, video taping, journal narratives, student drawings, and focus groups Indirect measures are Analyzing existing data sources kept by the teacher, school or local education authority, including attendance records of students and teachers; visits to the nurse’s office (which are measures of student stress levels); discipline referrals to the office; suspensions and expulsions; teacher and administrator turnover rates; student achievement; student mobility rates and the like. I would endeavor to draw up a plan for school effectiveness, i.e. decide which outcomes I want to pursue, and then define their climate and effectiveness factors as instruments to achieve their intended outcomes. The Dutch checklist for the assessment of the quality of classroom and school climate factors is another useful tool to get a clearer picture of strong and weak points of the school and classroom climate. 3. Organizational Development is the process by which a learning organization adjusts to evolving changes in the environment as well as an attempt to increase the self-renewal capacity of school districts and schools. For the purpose of this assignment I will focus on three of the concepts OD involves:, and to show how I would implement them into a plan for Organizational Development: 1. The goals : To improve the functioning of the organization in order to facilitate decision-making , and to develop a work-oriented culture that will increase the involvement of the people in the organization in these areas. Firstly, I would select a group to work with me to set the goals to be obtained. It is imperative that all role players should agree on the organization’s goals and how to accomplish them. There are distinct benefits to having a clear set of organizational goals. Goals -serve as guidelines for action, directing and channelling of employee efforts. provide constraints in the organization. Choosing specific goals reduces discretion in pursuing other goals. legitimize an organization’s activities and existence. define standards of performance and if they are clearly stated, they set standards for evaluation. motivate: By presenting a challenge and how to achieve it, organizational goals act as behavioural incentives. If goals are set as a group, people will support them and be responsible for what they help create. Greater commitment and motivation can be expected. There will be a clear understanding of the goals and rationale for selecting the group. If all members contributed to the goal setting, it will represent a group consensus instead of one person’s ideas. This is how I would go about setting the goals with my group: 1. Brainstorm a list of potential goals as a group. 2. Choose from the brainstorm list which to be worked on 3. Prioritize. 4. Determine objectives for each goal and plans of action for each objective 5. Move into action, follow through. The next step is to develop an Action Plan. The following needs to be determined: 1. What is to be done and how is it to be accomplished? 2. Availability of resources 3. People responsible for completing each task 4. What is the deadline and how will results be measured? Once the Action Plan is in place, I will now designate people to specific tasks, set up a time frame, and plan regular feedback opportunities. It is also important to consider what alternative actions could be taken should parts of the Action Plan not function properly. 5. System renewal: To enable the organization to initiate and adjust to change, develop problem-solving abilities, have an increased sense of purpose and direction and to impact the environment. The postmodern culture is characterized by many contradictions that have direct implications for educators.: -Many parents have given up responsibility for the very things they want schools to emphasize, for example, they demand more literature graduates, but allow their children to watch television for hours. -Businesses often fail to use the skills that it demands schools produce. The economic world is dominated by transnational corporations, national education systems encourage national curriculum and standards. Society demands more flexible work skills, and multicultural diversity, and expect schools to consider multiple intelligences, different learning styles, heterogenous grouping, and the integration of special needs students into mainstream. I propose six principles of school renewal that take these contradictions into account: 1. Moving missions: Common missions that require complete consensus, and have to appeal to so many different interests, can become weak. Mission statements can become too fixed to enable satisfactory responsiveness to changes in policy mandates, personnel, or student populations. Teachers and schools should therefore review and renew their purposes over time. 2. Policy realization: Teachers must have sufficient scope to continuously review and renew their moral purposes. Policy decisions should be determined at the immediate level where people will have to realize them . 3. Reculturing: In order for collective action and dialogue to occur, relationships that form the culture of the school, must be built among teachers and others. To develop or adjust these relationships, is to reculture the school . Two kinds of cultures have traditionally existed among teachers ? Cultures of individualism, where teachers have worked largely in isolation, but sharing few resources and ideas, and ? Balkanized cultures, where teachers have worked in self-contained subgroups- like subject departments, and compete for resources and principals favors Both cultures fragment professional relationships, making it hard for teachers to build on one anothers expertise. They also stifle the moral support necessary for risk-taking and experimentation. I would endeavour to reculture the school to create combined cultures among teachers and with the wider community. My aim is to create an atmosphere of trust in which teachers can share resources, deal with complex issues, and celebrate successes. Teamwork also promotes the development of a mutual professional language. I would recognize that diverse expertise contributes to learning, problem solving, and critical inquiry. I would have an orientation workshop in which the value of diverse expertise and viewpoints will be discussed. 4. Restructuring: Cultures are grounded in structures of time and space, which shape relationships. Structures of teacher isolation have their roots in schools in which children are moved through prescribed curriculums, from grade to grade, teacher to teacher. Similarly, balkanized teacher cultures are often a product of subject department structures based on the system of Carnegie units, devised in the United States in the 1920s .If the schedule does not allow teachers to meet during the regular school day, they may become worn down and captives of their schedule,. Consequently, collaboration becomes exhausting and unnatural rather than based on genuine commitment and working relationships. These are some of the strategies I propose to solve the structural problems with : Routinely coordinated planning times to bring together teachers who teach the same grade or subject. Place 1st and 6th grade teachers in adjoining classrooms can begin to break down stereotypes and the confines between the upper and lower ends of elementary school. Peer tutoring to bring together students of different ages as well as the teachers who supervise them. Teacher teams, multi-age groups and shared decision-making teams Block-scheduling, mini-schools or sub-schools 1. Organizational learning: Working together builds relationships , collective resolve and it’s a source of learning. It helps people to see problems as things to be solved and to value the different voices of less important members of the organization. Collaborative cultures turn individual learning into shared learning. Some teachers are regular explorers, ardent readers, keen conference-goers, and willing committee and task force volunteers. Others make small changes with their own classes where they know their efforts will make a difference .Change and continuous learning are important but so are consolidation and routine. Schools and teachers, however, have to deal with many mandates they do not control, but are frequently blamed for poorly designed tests or inappropriate curriculums If organizational learning is to help us in school renewal, the concept ought to be renewed in ways more suited to public school realities. 6. Positive politics Teachers exercise power over their students, administrators exercise power over teachers, and the smarter teachers know how to manipulate or maneuver around administrators. Schools are becoming more subject to the pressures of diverse groups with single-issue interests. The moves toward site-based management are also making schools and what they do more overtly political. Although many teachers feel that getting involved in politics is selfish and objectionable, not all politics is bad. Here are some ways I would encourage teachers to apply positive politics to benefit students: ? Understand the political configuration of your school. Who has formal and informal power? How do they exercise it? How are resources allocated? ? Act politically to secure support and resources for the good of your own students and, indeed, all students. Use diplomatic tactics, trade favors, influence power brokers, build alliances, lobby for support, introduce proposals before presenting them in detail, and be sure how to meets the interests of others. ? Empower others to be more competent. Assist students through cooperative instruction, active involvement in innovation, and by allowing self-assessment and peer assessment. Empower parents by communicating with them in plain language, building partnerships with them , and keeping them informed of new developments.. Empower colleagues by working with them, involving them in decision making, sharing leadership, and sharing with them your weaknesses , and uncertainties as a leader as well as your triumphs. ? Accept conflict as an intrinsic part of change. Fruitful conflict exposes differences, shows sensitivity to opposing interests and positions, prevents false consensus, and promotes movement beyond early fears about ones own threatened interests. ? Regain the discussion of education. Challenge the business rhetoric and express your principles through memorable phrases, vivid examples, and simple stories. A systems approach: Schools consist of subsystems, and to effect long-term change, the whole system should be changed as any alteration in one subsystem affect others. Issues should be dealt with as manifestations of interrelated forces. The administrator should deal with the existing patterns’ of human behavior, and by analyzing the specific field of forces. Schools develop a broad range of systems that help people function amidst the complexity. I would seek to strengthen the organizational goals by making sure that: all organizational leaders clearly understand what results they are accountable for, and that it matters that they should deliver expected results . Should there be some discrepancies between accountabilities, they should be resolved. I would attempt in the following ways to endure that decisions are made by knowledgeable people. a reporting structure is designed to fit the needs of the strategy and the values of the organization. Timely feedback is given, and use the performance appraisal to summarize feedback given throughout the year An approval system is established that evaluates projects rigorously, and that frees the organization to make good decisions. The criteria and process of the system should enable all to make better business decisions. -Spending authority is allocated to people’s accountabilities and the need of their jobs, and also that there are good controls in place for spending authority at any level. References: 1. Robert G. Owens/ Thomas H. Valesky:2007: 9th Edition: Organizational Behavior in Education: Adaptive Leadership and Reform 2. Freiberg, H. Jerome. School Climate : Measuring, Improving and Sustaining Healthy Learning Environments. 3. Best Practice BRIEFS No31, Dec 2004: Betty Tableman / Adrienne Herron 4. Building a Learning Community: The Culture and Climate of Schools: Angus MacNeil, Valerie Maclin 5. 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